http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/en/ Presentation by Paul Rogé, Mayamiko Kakwera, Isaac Jambo, and Sieg Snapp (Michigan State University) describing existing elements of ‘perenniality’ within African cropping systems. The presentation was delivered in occasion of the “Putting Perennial crops to work in practice” workshop in Bamako, Mali (1-5 September 2015).

1. Perenniality in Existing African
Cropping Systems
Paul Rogé, Mayamiko Kakwera,
Isaac Jambo, and Sieg Snapp
Michigan State University
Paul Rogé <proge@msu.edu>
3 September 2015
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 1 / 1

2. Outline
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 1 / 1

3. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Batello et al. 2004. The Future Is an Ancient Lake.
Harlan. 1989. Foraging and Farming.
Over 60 wild grasses have been
harvested in Africa for grain. Harlan
described plains of wild sorghum
(Sorghum verticilliflorum) as
abundant in the eastern half of
Africa, from Sudan to southern Africa.
chap04_kreb_28 7-02-2008 12:08 Pagina 104
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

4. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Moore & Vaughan. 1994.
Cutting Down Trees.
The authors describe the social elements that
make malnutrition less of a problem than it
otherwise would be in Zambia during the
colonial period.
Citemene gardens of mixed crop horticulture
comprised of gourds, pumpkins, small
cucumbers, and more recently cassava, were
described by colonial administrators to be
sown at the edges of gardens prior to main
millet crop.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

5. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Moore & Vaughan. 1994.
Cutting Down Trees.
It was also common to broadcast sow
perennial sorghum over the garden at wide
intervals. After the first year, a citemene
garden is called icifwani.
One common sequence according to Trapnell
(1953: 46):
Y1 millet and perennial sorghum
Y2 resprouted sorghum with millet
Y3 dominant perennial sorghum
Y4 beans on mounds (mputa)
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

6. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Moore & Vaughan. 1994.
Cutting Down Trees.
It was also common to broadcast sow
perennial sorghum over the garden at wide
intervals. After the first year, a citemene
garden is called icifwani.
One common sequence according to Trapnell
(1953: 46):
Y1 millet and perennial sorghum
Y2 resprouted sorghum with millet
Y3 dominant perennial sorghum
Y4 beans on mounds (mputa)
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

7. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Vaughan studied the famine in the Southern
Region of Malawi in 1949 when the maize
crops generally failed.
The Department of Agriculture had previously
prosecuted those who cultivated along rivers,
who grew polycultures, or grew hardy
perennial sorghum. Rather, they had
promoted monoculture production of maize.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

8. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Vaughan studied the famine in the Southern
Region of Malawi in 1949 when the maize
crops generally failed.
The Department of Agriculture had previously
prosecuted those who cultivated along rivers,
who grew polycultures, or grew hardy
perennial sorghum. Rather, they had
promoted monoculture production of maize.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

9. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Fortunately, the Department of Agriculture’s
campaign against the cultivation of hardy
crops had limited success in the previous
years.
Within a small area there was a high variability
in the degree of food shortage. Floodlands
that were planted late to maize produced well,
as did hardy crops like ratooned sorghum.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

10. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Fortunately, the Department of Agriculture’s
campaign against the cultivation of hardy
crops had limited success in the previous
years.
Within a small area there was a high variability
in the degree of food shortage. Floodlands
that were planted late to maize produced well,
as did hardy crops like ratooned sorghum.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

11. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Sorghum and root crops were valuable during
the famine period, which subsequently
received greater attention from the
Department of Agriculture.
In the 1950s, Blantyre produced a surplus of
sorghum, and Indian traders fostered a cash
crop industry in the area whereby 3,795 short
tons of pulses were brought in by the Produce
Board in 1956.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

12. Precedent of perennial grains in Africa
Vaughan. 1987.
The Story of an African Famine
Sorghum and root crops were valuable during
the famine period, which subsequently
received greater attention from the
Department of Agriculture.
In the 1950s, Blantyre produced a surplus of
sorghum, and Indian traders fostered a cash
crop industry in the area whereby 3,795 short
tons of pulses were brought in by the Produce
Board in 1956.
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 2 / 1

13. Semi-structured interviews with farmers
Malawi
• How is perenniality already
featured?
• How do the environmental
and social aspects of
farming systems influence
perenniality?
• What are needed research
directions on perennial
grains given the specific
contexts of Malawi?
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 3 / 1

14. Malawi study regions
Ekwendeni
Kasungu
Zomba
Mzuzu
Kasungu
Blantyre
Lilongwe
33°30'E
9°30'S13°0'S16°30'S
Yesaya Jere
Yachim Ngwira
Mkowela Mhlanga
Msekeni Kawelani
33°50'E
11°20'S
Ndaya
Mbale
Kadoda
Nsalale
Tembo / Makhalangala
33°40'E
12°50'S
Mwaliwa
Nansalala
Sitima II
Mulenga II
35°30'E
15°30'S
1a
2a
3a 3b
1b
2b
Malawi
NDVI
High : 0.90
Low : -0.12
Interview
0 105
Kilometers
Mozambique
Tanzania
Zambia
1
2
3
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 4 / 1

15. Malawi study regions
We spoke with
at least two
farmers in each
village who
had some
experience
with perennial
grain crops,
such as pigeon
pea or
ratooned
sorghum, in
the preceding
rainy season
(2013-2014).
Mzuzu
Kasungu
Blantyre
Lilongwe
33°30'E
9°30'S13°0'S16°30'S
Yesaya Jere
Yachim Ngwira
Mkowela Mhlanga
Msekeni Kawelani
33°50'E
11°20'S
Ndaya
Mbale
Kadoda
Nsalale
Tembo / Makhalangala
33°40'E
12°50'S
Mwaliwa
Nansalala
Sitima II
Mulenga II
35°30'E
15°30'S
1a
2a
3a 3b
1b
2b
Malawi
NDVI
High : 0.90
Low : -0.12
Interview
0 105
Kilometers
Mozambique
Tanzania
Zambia
1
2
3
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 4 / 1

16. Malawi study regions
We sought to
interview equal
numbers of
women and
men in each
village since
agricultural
management
was often
shaped by
gender norms.
Mzuzu
Kasungu
Blantyre
Lilongwe
33°30'E
9°30'S13°0'S16°30'S
Yesaya Jere
Yachim Ngwira
Mkowela Mhlanga
Msekeni Kawelani
33°50'E
11°20'S
Ndaya
Mbale
Kadoda
Nsalale
Tembo / Makhalangala
33°40'E
12°50'S
Mwaliwa
Nansalala
Sitima II
Mulenga II
35°30'E
15°30'S
1a
2a
3a 3b
1b
2b
Malawi
NDVI
High : 0.90
Low : -0.12
Interview
0 105
Kilometers
Mozambique
Tanzania
Zambia
1
2
3
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 4 / 1

17. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Sample villages
Ekwendeni
Yesaya Jere
Yachim Ngwira
Mkowela Mhlanga
Msekeni Kawelani
33°50'E
11°20'S
Tembo / Makhalangala
33°40'E
1a
2a
1b
2b
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 5 / 1

18. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Sample villages
Kasungu
Yesaya Jere
Yachim Ngwira
Mkowela Mhlanga
11°20'S
Ndaya
Mbale
Kadoda
Nsalale
Tembo / Makhalangala
33°40'E
12°50'S
Mulenga II
35°30'E
2a
3a 3b
2b
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 5 / 1

19. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Context
• Kasungu’s agricultural economy largely based on tobacco,
while the production of cassava and soybean was most
common near Ekwendeni
• Pigeon pea and sorghum were less commonly produced
• Soil improvement and food security projects introduced
pigeon pea in the last 10 years
• The distribution of pigeon pea was facilitated by
agricultural extension agents in concert with NGO efforts.
• We selected villages within 8km of villages of where NGOs
had recently introduced pigeon pea
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 6 / 1

20. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Findings
• Long fallows still practiced in the
northern region due to larger
extensions of land
• Price for pigeon pea in the
northern and central regions was
very low; primarily grown in
small quantities to improve soil
fertility and for food
• Families ratooned pigeon pea for
up to three years and the two
farmers that we interviewed who
grew sorghum also ratooned the
crop for three years
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 7 / 1

21. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Findings
• Animals traditionally were
released to pasture after maize
was harvested
• Some villages had passed
ordinances to protect the rights
of farmers to grow cassava and
pigeon pea year-round
• Nevertheless, many interviewees
expressed hesitation about
growing crops like pigeon pea for
more than one year
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 7 / 1

22. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Observations
• Development organizations and
extension agents played an
important role in spreading
pigeon pea, where it was viewed
as a strategy for improving soil
quality and family nutrition
• New ordinances for livestock
management is a first step
towards introducing perennial
crops
• Internal politics of livestock
management still presents
challenges
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 8 / 1

23. Ekwendeni and Kasungu
Observations
• Important topics that need to be
addressed for further adoption:
• improving the quality of
extension services
• market access
• breeding better adapted
varieties
• establishing social norms to
manage livestock
• Research on the management
of perennial pigeon pea as well
as its soil-improving and
nutritional potential
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 8 / 1

24. Zomba
Sample villages
Ndaya
Kadoda
Nsalale
12°50'S
Mwaliwa
Nansalala
Sitima II
Mulenga II
35°30'E
15°30'S
3a 3b
NDVI
High : 0.90
Low : -0.12
Interview
0 105
Kilometers
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 9 / 1

25. Zomba
Context
• Pigeon pea and sorghum historically grown in the
Southern Region
• Commercial markets exist for the export of pigeon pea
and the brewing of sorghum beer
• We selected two villages with pigeon pea production and
two villages with sorghum production in the Mpokwa
Extension Area
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 10 / 1

26. Zomba
Findings
• The market price for pigeon pea was very
good, especially as of about seven years
ago when companies such as AGORA and
Rab Processors began procuring pigeon pea
• Some farmers grew pigeon pea as a
perennial for up to three years because
they observed improved yields in the later
years, both in intercrops and pure stands
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 11 / 1

27. Zomba
Findings
• Sorghum was produced as an annual for
sale and family consumption as nsima
• Farmers knew of sorghum’s perennial traits
but in many instances chose to grew it as
an annual
• head smut of the grain
• detrimental impacts on soil fertility
• marginal improvement in yields
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 11 / 1

28. Zomba
Findings
• Farmers preferred to rotate sorghum with
other crops due to limited space and
improved soil fertility
• Nevertheless, a few farmers who grew
sorghum over many years perceived
improvements in yield
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 11 / 1

29. Conclusions
• Knowledge: ratooning widely practiced and with mixed
results
• Land: farmers were interested in perennial crops where
land was abundant, and in rotations where land was
limited
• Markets: Perennial crops were valued for soil quality
improvements and family nutrition where markets did not
exist and for yield improvements where markets existed
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 12 / 1

30. Conclusions
• Social norms: the creation and enforcement of ordinances
for protecting perennial crops from animal husbandry was
very important, as was the interest of women in growing
diverse foods for their families
• Labor: intercropping with annual and perennial legumes
was particularly important for women who wished to save
labor
• Institutions: nonprofit organizations and extensionists
played a critical role in the introduction of new varieties
and also in the sharing of information about production
practices
Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 12 / 1

31. Paul Rogé (proge@msu.edu) Existing Perenniality 3 September 2015 13 / 1