NEW TRENDS IN FEEDING LIVESTOCK

1. NEW TRENDS IN
FEEDING LIVESTOCK
Dr.T.Parthasarathi
M.V.Sc.

2. Agriculture crops
Food crops
Crops residues
(dry fodder)
roughages
Oil seeds
Oil cakes &
by products
Fodder crops
Tree leaves
concentrates
Non food
crops (fiber)
Cotton seed cakes &
by products
PASTURES
CONVENTIONAL FEEDING

3. Background
Population
Explosion
Increasing
Demand
Shortage of
both protein
and energy
rich animal
feeds
Deficit of 19%
DM, 55% DCP
& 28% TDN
2020 India would require 494
Mt of dry fodder, 825 Mt of
green fodder and 54 Mt of
concentrate feed.
reach about 312 million by 2015
India imports about 250,000 tonnes of residues and waste from food industry like flour meals,
molasses, residue of starch, oil-cake, vegetables etc worth over 1,000 million rupees (INR).

4. Allocating more
land for fodder
cultivation
New feeding
methods
NOT
POSSIBLE
Efficient utilization of
available feedstuffs along
with continuous search
for newer feed resources

5. Hydroponic fodder
Azolla production
Silage preparation in plastic bags
Earthworm meal feeding
Total mixed ration, Densified Total mixed Ration Blocks

6. Application of nano-technology
Neutraceuticals in livestock feeding
Plant secondary metabolites as feed additives (essential oils,
antioxidant rich feeds, Tannin rich feeds (tree leaves) as feed
supplements and control of parasitic infection
Biological treatment of crop residue for livestock feeding- Solid state
fermentation, fungal inoculation, enzymatic degradation

7. Genetically modified crops Precision feeding in animals (offer feed according to
accurate reuirment to avoid env. pollution and wastage of feed)
Scarcity fodders-crop residues,Unconventional feeds, failed crops, agro-
industrial by products, plant oriented wastes
Genetical approaches to change the rumen environment.
Rumen manipulaters: buffers, Enzymes, Betonite, Fungal biomas(Fungal spore in
feed blocks- after reaching rumen germinate and improves the fiber digestion)
Formulation of feeds with antibiotics, hormones, feed acidifiers, anti-oxidants,
probiotics etc..

8. Portable Solar/Wind Greenhouse to grow
Fodder for sustainable Dairy Farms
Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of
growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water,
without soil.
Terrestrial plants may be grown with their roots in the mineral
nutrient solution only or in an inert medium, such
as perlite, gravel, biochar, mineral wool, expanded clay pebbles or
coconut husk.

12. Farmers collecting their daily fodder

13. KEY FACTS
•The digestive system of ruminating mammals,
does not fit to grain-fed.
•Up to 25% of indigestion and lactic acidosis from
rapid fermentation of grain lead to dehydration,
heart failure, kidney failure, infertility and even
death
•Feeding with fresh green fodder allows their
digestive system to function to maximum
efficiency.
Hydroponic Fodder provides, year round, clean & fresh green fodder, increasing red blood cell
count to more oxygen in blood system, more & high quality protein, enzymes and vitamins at
highest digestibility.
•Lack of water resources to grow green
fodder
•Increasing labor cost for green fodder
cultivation
•Lack of power supply
•High residue of pesticides and fertilizers in
green fodder
CHALLENGES
•Hydroponics greenhouse of 300 sq. ft. produces 365000 kg fresh green fodder per year,
which is equivalent of 25 acres of grass field.
•2 to 3 litre of water are required to produce 1 kg. of green grass whereas conventional
methods require an average of 80 litre water to produce the same quantity.

14. Traditional Hydroponics
100% organic
Solar/generator backed
Minimal use of labour
Very less usage of water
High residue of
pesticides/fertilizers
Lack of power supply
High cost of labor
Lack of water resources
• Uniform Growth of green fodder
• Space Saving and Energy saving
• Contains Vitamins and Minerals
• Year round cultivation
• Root-zone irrigation
• Disease control and immune system
competence
• Irrigation by speed & time controls
• Light works & Labor saving
• Improved Fertility
• Water/Fertilizer saving
• UV light sterilization
• Minimal energy consumption
(Solar/Battery energy applicable)
Hydroponic Fodder provides energy rich nutrients - Folic Acid, Omega-3
fatty acids, Chlorophylls and mixed Carotenoids.

15. Increase in milk yield up to 25% and increase in Fat % up to
20%.
Decrease in concentrate feed costs up to 50%.
Improved Fertility and Increases conception rates.
Hydroponically grown fodder is 100% Organic.
Relatively low cost compared to other high protein feeds.
Hydroponic Fodder doesn’t have fungi problems.

16. Case study:
• Creating employment for women in
the rural areas by introducing
• MICRO DAIRY PROJECT :6 Buffalos or
6 Cattle module + Solar & Wind
powered portable Greenhouse Model
GF120 producing 120 kg. / 264 lb.
fodder per day
• Donated by World Vision - Dahod to
Pethapur Milk Producer's Society
belongs to Tribal (Bhill) community
At, Po. Petahapur, Taluka: Zalod,
District: Dahod, Gujarat, India

17. Cost of hydroponic fodder
S.No Component Rate / Unit Cost
1. Hydroponic Unit with Solar + Wind mill Rs. 25.00 lakhs
2. Production per unit per day 1000 kgs / ton
3. Water requirement 3000 litres per
day
4. Maize Seed (165 kgs per day) Rs. 12 per kg Rs. 1980
5. Labour (2 persons per unit) Rs. 150 per day Rs. 300
6. Depreciation (10 years period) Rs. 700 per day Rs. 700
7. Production cost Per 1000 Kgs Rs. 2980
8. Cost per kg Rs. 2.98 or 3.00
9. Quantity per animal 16.00 kgs Rs. 48 per animal
10. Quantity per animal 10.00 kgs Rs. 30 per animal

18. Azolla- As Livestock Feed
• Azolla is a floating fern which resembles algae
• Normally azolla is grown in paddy fields or shallow water bodies
• Multiplies very rapidly
• Azolla an aquatic fern is regarded as “Live Nitrogen Manufacturing Factory”
because, it harbors nitrogen fixing Cyanobacteria.
• Azolla has been extensively used both as biofertilizer and green manuring for rice
cultivation in the South East Asian countries. More than 50 % nitrogen can be
supplemented when Azolla dual cropped with rice.

19. Azolla as fodder/ feed
• Rich in proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins (vitamin A,
vitamin B12 and Beta- Carotene), growth promoter
intermediaries and minerals like calcium, phosphorous, potassium,
ferrous, copper, magnesium
• Dry weight basis, it contains 25 - 35 percent protein, 10 - 15
percent minerals and 7 - 10 percent of amino acids, bio-active
substances and bio-polymers
• Livestock easily digest it, owing to its high protein and low lignin
content
• Azolla can be mixed with concentrates or can be given directly to
livestock
• Can also be fed to poultry, sheep, goats, pigs and rabbits.

20. Azolla Production
• The soil in the area is first cleared of weeds and leveled
• Bricks are lined horizontally in a rectangular fashion.
• A UV stabilized silpauline sheet of 2mX2m size is
uniformly spread over the bricks in such a way as to
cover the margin of the rectangle made by the bricks
• 10-15 kg of sieved soil is uniformly spread over the
silpauline pit
• Slurry made of 2 kg cow dung and 30 g of Super
Phosphate mixed in 10 liters of water, is poured onto
the sheet. More water is poured on to raise the water
level to about 10 cm

21. • About 0.5-1kg of pure mother azolla culture
seed material is spread uniformly over the
water, after mild stirring of soil and water in
the azolla bed. Fresh water should be sprinkled
over the azolla immediately after inoculation to
make the azolla plants upright
• In a week’s time, the azolla spreads all over the
bed and develops a thick mat like appearance.
• A mixture of 20 g of Super Phosphate and
about 1 kg of cow dung should be added once in
5 days in order to maintain rapid multiplication
of the azolla and to maintain the daily yield of
500 g

22. • A micronutrient mix containing magnesium, iron, copper, sulphur etc.,
can also be added at weekly intervals to enhance the mineral content of
azolla
• About 5 kg of bed soil should be replaced with fresh soil, once in 30
days, to avoid nitrogen build up and prevent micro-nutrient deficiency
• 25 to 30 percent of the water also needs to be replaced with fresh
water, once every 10 days, to prevent nitrogen build up in the bed
• The bed should be cleaned, the water and soil replaced and new azolla
inoculated once every six months
• A fresh bed has to be prepared and inoculated with pure culture of
azolla, when contaminated by pest and diseases

23. Harvesting
• Will grow rapidly and fill the pit within 10 - 15 days. From
then on, 500 - 600 g of azolla can be harvested daily.
• Can be done every day from the15th day onwards with the
help of a plastic sieve or tray with holes at the bottom
• The harvested azolla should be washed in fresh water to get
rid of the cow dung smell

24. Alternative Inputs
• Fresh biogas slurry may also be used
• Waste water from bathroom and cattle shed can also be
used to fill the pit. In areas where there is a problem of fresh
water availability, the water left after washing clothes (after
the second rinsing) can also be used.

25. Environmental factors for the growth
• Temperature 20°C - 28°C
• Light 50% full sunlight
• Relative Humidity 65 - 80%
• Water (standing in the tank) 5 - 12 cm
• pH 4-7.5

26. Points to be noted during cultivation of azolla
• Washing in a net will be useful as it will allow small plantlets
to get out, and they can be poured back in to the pond
• Care should be taken to retain the temperature below 25°C.
• Shade nets can be used to cut the light intensity.
• The azolla biomass should be removed daily to avoid over
crowding.

27. Azolla dual with rice
can save 50 % of
nitrogen
requirement
Field multiplication
Rice-Azolla
AZOLLA RICE DUAL CULTURE

28. AZOLLA DUAL CROPPING WITH RICE
Treatment Grain yield
(q/ha)
% increase
over control
Control 13.8 -----
50 % NPK + Azolla compost @10t/ha 23.5 44.6
50 % NPK + Azolla dual cropping 29.5 54.5
50 % NPK + Azolla @ 10 t/ha 26.6 51.4
Azolla dual cropping 22.3 41.4
100 % NPK 25.2 49.1
AZOLLA DUAL CROPPING ENHANCE YIELD BY 41
PER CENT OVER NO AZOLLA TREATMENT

29. MASS MULTIPLICATION OF AZOLLA
HOMESTEAD METHOD
Prepare pit 2m length,1m width & 20cm depth
Spread polythene sheet (2.6mx1.6m) over the pit
Add SSP (10g), MOP (10g) , dry cow dung (100g) & Azolla 300 g
Mud plastering the surroundings & pour water level (10 cm )
Multiply for 15 days. Harvest and repeat the above procedure

30. FIELD METHOD FOR AZOLLA MULTIPLICATION
Prepare and level the field
uniformly
Divide the field into 20x5m
providing suitable bunds &
irrigation channel
Maintain 10 cm water depth
Add 10 kg cowdung+8kg
Azolla+100 gm SSP /plot
Harvest after 15 days

31. Earthworms - an animal feed alternative
• Earthworm meal is a protein dry extract which
reaches concentrations around 64-70 %.
• The modern earthworm feed shape was technically
elaborated so that amino acids compounding proteins
are isolated and independent. Amino acids are basically
provided as a compound with two functions –o from
Amin (-NH) and Acid (-COOII).
• Amino acids are immediately absorbed in the
gastrointestinal mechanism which increases the food
material and hence decreases absorption.
• All essential amino acids must be present in the due
rates and associated to mineral salts and vitamins, so
that the organism may use and synthesize protein
effectively.
• The earthworm meal is being incorporated to feed for
all kinds of animals and phases.
GUARANTEED LEVELS:
Proteins …………………… 70 %
Fat ……………………………… 6,56 %
Fibres ………………………… 3,3 %
Carbohydrates ………… 17,60 %
Mineral Material ………… 7,59 %
Calcium ……………………… 0,5 %
Phosphorus ……………… 0,90 %
Humity ……………………… 8 %

32. Earthworm meal is recommended for:
• Fish, frog, and crustacean breeding
• Ornamental fish breeding
• Aviculture and sportive birds
• Chinchillas and ornamental birds
• Equitation, race, and domestic horses
• Cattle, swine, sheep, and goat studs
• Dairy cattle
• Pet food

33. Total mixed ration & Densified Complete
Feed Blocks (DCFBs)
• Total Mixed Ration (TMR), which involves
mechanical mixing of forages with concentrate
feedings without densification.
• Manufacture of Straw-based Densified Total Mixed
Ration Blocks (DTMRBs), also called Densified
Complete Feed Blocks (DCFBs) is an innovative
technology to supply balanced feeds to the dairy
and other livestock farmers in the tropics.
• This technology of making DTMRBs has now been
commercialized in India and the manufacturing
plants have been set up in different states under
Dairy Cooperatives and State level Livestock
Boards, with Government providing the incentive
by way of offering 50% subsidy for setting up of
such plants.

34. • The first step in the process of making DTMRBs is the grinding
and mixing of concentrate ingredients separately.
• This is followed by adding concentrate components to chopped
straw in desired proportions along with molasses in a mixer,
taking care that mixing is uniform and ingredients are not
separated due to gravity.
• Finally, the desired quantity of straw-concentrate mix is
transferred to a hydraulic press to convert the mix into a
block.
• Recently, a modified version of the technology has been
developed, and the densified total mixed ration is delivered as
pellets (DTMRPs).

35. TMR mixer – twin vat
system for mixing straw
and concentrate
Densification machines based on the principle
of hydraulic compression for making feed
blocks
Flail mower cum loader
Pick-up type field balers A truck load of densified TMR blocks
being transported in Uttra Khand state
of India

36. TMR : Total Mixed Ration

37. Nano Technology for Higher Bioavailability
TANUVAS, Chennai
Cost Economics ?
Nano Calcium Phosphate : < 100 nm size
Nano Zn, Nano Se

38. Area Specific Mineral Mixture Technology
Cost –effective and Practical Approach

39. ‘Precision Animal Nutrition’ (PAN) feeding system that precisely
meet nutritional requirements for optimum production efficiency,
produce better quality livestock products and contribute to the
cleaner environment and there by ensure profitability
Nutrient – Host – Environment – Profit
Better feeding management, quality feeds, supplements, feed
additives, efficient use of resources, minimum negative impact on
environment
Precision Feeding -
Concept and Application

40. Nutraceuticals
the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”, is a food or food
product that provides health and medical benefits, including the
prevention and treatment of disease.

42. Solid-state fermentation (SSF)
• Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is defined
as the fermentation process in which
microorganisms grow on solid materials
without the presence of free liquid
• The SSF is alternative to submerged
fermentation for production of value
added products like antibiotics, single
cell protein, Poly unsaturated fatty
acids, enzymes, organic acids,
biopesticides, biofuel and aroma
production

43. Solid state fermentation
• Allow the growth of white rot fungi
(Basidomycetes) on crop residue
• Principle: This fungi releases Mn. Peroxidase,
laccase and lignin peroxidase.
• Karnal process:
• 1st stage: primary treatment with 4% urea +
40% water = ensiling for 40 days
• 2nd stage: this material mix with 1% super
phosphate + 0.1% CaO + raise the moisture up to
65-70% + 3% inoculation of Coprinus
filamentaris (alkali tolerant strain)

44. Use of plant secondary
products-Methane
Mitigation measures
effectiveness of a particular strategy
depends on
 the cost of the item,
 economic status of livestock keeper,
 toxicity to host animal or inhabiting
microbes,
 persistency etc.

45. Gross energy
Digestible
energy
Fecalenergy
Urineenergy
Methaneenergy
Metabolic energy
Net energy(NE)
for maintenance
Net energy(NE)
for production
HEAT
INCREMENT
• The process of digestion and metabolism referred to as enteric
fermentation causes 2–12% loss of dietary energy as methane (CH4) in
ruminants.
• Loss of energy as CH4 from diets/feeding systems varied from 6.48% to
12.56% in buffalo, 6.6% to 12.09% in goat and 6.16% to 12.62% in
sheep.

47. Saponins
• inhibitory action of saponins on protozoa - interspecies
hydrogen transfer to methanogens
• Yucca schidigera, Quillaja saponaria, Enterolobium cyclocarpum,
Sesbania sesban, Medicago sativa, Sapindus saponaria, Sapindus
rarak and Sapindus mukorossi
• saponin containing plants - suppressing or eliminating protozoa
• saponins are differentially toxic to rumen protozoa - presence
of
cholesterol in eukaryotic membranes but not in prokaryotic
Plant secondary compounds
(Hess et al. 2003, García- González et al.2008, Rejil et al. (2008)

48. Supplementation of tannins in feed
• Tannins are a complex group of
polyphenolic compounds.
• classified into two major groups: the
hydrolysable and the condensed
tannins.
• low to moderate concentrations
improve the digestive utilization of
feed mainly due to a reduction in
protein degradation in the rumen
and a subsequent increase in amino
acid flow to the small intestine.
• decreases emissions of CH4 from
sheep by reduction of methanogen
and protozoa populations.
(Berra et al. 2008, Bhatta et al. 2009)

49. Supplementation of probiotics in feed
• Probiotics are ‘live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts
confer a health benefit on the host’ (FAO).
Effect on micro biota composition &
metabolic effects
 Suppression of endogenous &
endogenous pathogens
 Reducing the risk of intestinal
diseases
 Inhibition of toxins originated from
blood
 Immune modulation
 Tolerance to different foods
 Enhanced innate immunity
 Increased nutrient absorption

50. Dicarboxylic acids (Iqbal et al. 2008, Sirohi et al. 2009)
• Increased propionate production (Bayaru et al. 2001)
 proliferation of cellulolytic bacteria (Asanuma et al. 1999)
• Eg: High malate content in fresh forages at early growth stage
especially lucerne (Martin 1998), encapsulated fumaric acid in the diet
of sheep Wallace et al. (2006)
Essential oils
• essential oil thymol derived from thymus and origanum plants
Evans and Martin(2000)
 garlic oil and diallyl disulphide Busquet et al. (2005)
 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) - potential inhibitor of the protozoa
• inhibition is concentration dependent Rasmussem et al.(2005)

51. Biological approaches:
nutritionalstrategies
aimed at suppressing
methanogenesis
Limited by
concomitantly impaired
nutrient digestibility
reduced feed intake,
expensive at high dose
and
transitory effect
chemicals
always associated with
the risk destined for
human consumption
condensedtannins,saponinsor
essentialoils
Merit in reducing
methane emissions
but
responses may be
through reduced
digestibility of the diet

52. Animal manipulation
• Animal breeding could achieve a 10%–20% reduction in CH4
losses from dry matter (DM) during digestion(Waghorn et
al., 2006).
• However, breeding for reduced methanogenesis is unlikely to
be compatible with other competing breeding objectives.
• improved for feed conversion efficiency,
• reduce both CH4 and the ratio of CH4 per unit producer
• Reducing the number of unproductive animals on a farm can
potentially both improve profitability and reduce CH4.

53.  extended lactation in dairying - cows calve every 18 months
rather than annually, reduce herd energy demand by 10.4%
(Trapnell and Malcolm, 2006).
 With earlier finishing of beef cattle in feed lots, slaughter
weights are reached at a younger age, with reduced lifetime
emissions per animal and thus proportionately fewer animals
producing CH4 (Smith et al., 2007).
 increase the stocking rate, resulting in either no net change or
even a net increase in CH4 production.
 the addition of more grain to the diet will incur additional
N2O and transport emissions during the grain production
processes

54. Dietary manipulation
Composition of diet
type of forage processing,
feeding frequency
Nature of concentrate
level of intake
altering surface area for
microbial activity
ruminal pH
flow rate of digesta
fermentation pattern
methane emission

55. Dietary manipulation
Forage quality
 Improving forage quality
 lower fiber and higher soluble carbohydrates,
• changing fromC4 to C3 grasses, or grazing on less-mature
pastures (Ulyatt et al., 2002; Beauchemin et al., 2008),
 addition of grain to forage diet increases starch and reduces fiber
intake, reducing the rumen pH and favouring the production of
propionate rather than acetate in the rumen(McAllister and Newbold,
2008)

56. Reducing
dietary energy
converted to
CH4
efficient post-
ruminal
digestion
reduces the
retention time
in the rumen
increase the
voluntary
intake
Improving
forage quality
higher proportions of
forage legumes in the
diet
lower fiber
content
faster rate of
passage
Reduced CH4
emissions
(Blaxter and Clapperton, 1965)
(Beauchemin et al., 2008)

57. • Direct inhibition of methanogenesis by halogenated methane
analogues and related compounds has been widely
demonstrated invitro.
• Chloral hydrate – converted to chloroform ( prolonged use
causes liver damage and death) inhibited methane
production in vivo
• Trichloroacetamide, trichloroethyl adipate,
bromochloromethane combination of bromochloromethane
and a-cyclodextrin.
• 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid (BES), 9,10-anthraquinone.
Direct inhibition

58. Dietary supplementation
• Dietary oils
fats
Indirect: protozoal inhibition by
reduction of double bonds in
unsaturated fatty acids,
increase propionate production
Direct: causing toxicity
directly to methanogens by
changing their metabolic
activity and composition
(Machmuller et al.1998) (Machmüller et al. 2003)

59. Limitations
• reduces fiber digestion (McGinn et al. 2004)
• Reduced microbial protein(Dong et al. 1997)
• negative effect on milk fat concentration
• adverse effect on animals
• High cost (Zheng et al. 2005)

60. Ionophores
Reduced
methane
emissions
• increasing feed conversion efficiency
• selective reduction in acetate production
• inhibition of release of H2 from formate
• shift in fermentation pattern
• anti-protozoal effect
Eg: monensin and lasalocid
(Moss et al. 2000, Barman et al. 2001, Beauchemin et al. 2008)

61. • Dicarboxylic organic acids such as malate may alter rumen
fermentation in a manner similar to ionophores (Lopez et al)
• fumarate, a precursor of propionate depressed methane
production in vitro (Asanuma et al.).
• Malate, which is converted to propionate via fumarate, also
stimulated propionate production and inhibited
methanogenesis in vitro
Propionate enhancers

62. Reductive acetogenesis:
An alternative pathway for
hydrogen disposal
 addition of mucin or
amino acids
 by striving the inhibition
of rival methanogens
(Genthner et al.1981, Morvan et al. 1994, Fievez et al.2001, Cottle et al. 2011

63. • immunize animals against their own methanogens
• methanogen cell envelope having pseudomurein serves as the
interface between the organism and its rumen environment
• represents a key area for the identification of vaccine and
drug targets (Leahy et al. 2010)
• indirectly affects the activity of archea as they have a
commensal relationship with rumen protozoa
Immunization:

64. Limitations :
 Not effective
• Specific to particular archea (Wright et al. 2004, Clark et al. 2007)
 Immunization failure
 Passive immunization: using antibodies prepared from hen’s eggs
 Antibodies decreased methane production in vitro but the effect was
short-lived (Cook et al. 2008)
 If this proves successful, valuable tool for methane reductions as it
could be applied to a whole ruminant population

65. • In the rumen, bacterial viruses (bacteriophages or phages) are well
known having population density about >109 particles/ml fluid
and they attack a wide variety of bacterial hosts (Klieve and Swain
1993)
• Phage-like particles are known to infect Methanobrevibacter
smithii and Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum (Nagle 1989)
• M. smithii strain PS is the host for a virus that has a morphology
identical to phages of the family Siphoviridae (Knox and Harris 1986)
• limitation : biocontrol agent is probably lack of universal
infectivity.
Phage therapy:

66. • Rumen ciliate protozoa are known to be endosymbiotically
associated with methanogens (Finlay et al.1994)
• protozoa-associated methanogens are accounted up to 37% of
total rumen methane emissions.
Defaunated animals produce less methane (Williams and Coleman 1992)
• shift of digestion from rumen to hind gut (Van Nevel and Demeyer
1996)
• the loss of methanogens associated with protozoa (Hegarty 1999)
• Defaunation methods are having various negatives either on the
rest of the rumen microbes or on the host itself (Williams and
Coleman 1997)
Defaunation:

67. Defaunation may depress fiber digestion, thus
complete elimination of protozoa (rather than
selective defaunation) is not recommended
• saponin containing plants - suppressing or
eliminating protozoa (Malik and Singhal 2008b)
saponins are differentially toxic to rumen protozoa -
presence of cholesterol in eukaryotic membranes but
not in prokaryotic (Kilta et al. 1996)

68. Disabling the protein binding:
 Methanogens associated with other ruminal organisms via
specific surface proteins
 Disabling these proteins or preventing their binding could
disrupt these interactions and upset their normal behaviour.
 Key genes and enzymes which may be potential targets
involved in the methanogensis pathway within the cell are the
possible vaccine targets Leahy et al. (2010).

69. • hydroponics
• using nutriciticals to improve the gut health
• using of tannin rich feeds (tree leaves) to control parasitic infection
• using of plant secondary metabolites as feed additives (essential oils,
antioxidant rich feeds... etc)
• using of earthworm feeding
• concept of total mixed ration
• preparation of complete feed blocks by using straws
• using of organic minerals
• advances in nano mineral technology

70. • solid state fermentation technique to improve the crop residues
• preparation of silage by using pineapple waste
• silage preparation by using polymer bags (easy and portable)
• using of genetically modified crops (low in lignine and other anti
nutritional factor)
• precision feeding in animals (offer feed according to accurate
requirement to avoid env. pollution and wastage of feed)
• using of unconventional feeds
• using of enzymes to degrade the celluse and lignin (laccase enzyme)
• using of fungal spore in feed blocks- after reaching rumen germinate
and improves the fiber digestion
• genetical approaches to change the rumen env.

71. The non-conventional feed resources (NCFR)
refer to all those feeds that have not been
traditionally used in animal feeding & are not
normally used in commercially produced
rations for livestock.
Considerable
potential as feed
material
Economically
justifiable
technology
Convert them into some
usable products.

72.  Brewery waste & DDG
 Sea weed meal
 Sugar cane bagasse
Classification based on Nutrient
ContentsProtein Rich Vegetable origin Animal origin
Miscellaneous
 Tapioca products
 Mango seed kernel
 Tamarind seed powder
 Guar meal
 Rubber seed
cake
 Neem seed cake
 Poultry By
products
 Blood & Meat Meal
 Shrimp Shell
Energy Rich

73. Classification
Agricultural crop residues
By-products from sugar industry
Oil seeds and cakes.
Animal protein sources.
By products from forest.
Animal organic wastes
Fruit & vegetable By-products

74. Different Agro-Climatic
Zones • Sal Seed Cake
• Mahua Cake
Red laterite Zone
• Maize Cob
• Pine apple
Hilly Zone
• Mango Seed Kernel Cake
• Neem Seed Powder
Alluvial Zone
Coastal Zone • Tamarind Seed Cake
• Rice Husk

75. Agricultural crop residues
After harvest, usually available residues are straws,
stovers, grains and their byproducts like
husks/hulls, bran etc….
Crops grown usually in India are cereals like paddy,
wheat, maize, sorghum & legumes like grams,
ground nut, beans & peas
Straws are the staple source for livestock feeding
globally

76.  Broken rice can easily substitute maize, nearly 40-
50% in Broiler feed & 50% in diets for growing &
finishing pigs.
 Rice bran can be used up to 15 - 30 % in diets of pigs
& poultry & major ingredient in dairy feed.
 Rice husk can be used up to 5% in the diets & nearly
10%, if ground to smaller size
Availability in
M.T
CP % CF % TDN %
Rice straw 144570000 3.4 25.1 ----
Rice husk 24576900 3.0 40.0 ----
Rice bran 14457000 15.5 ---- 84.8
Broken rice 7228500 ---- ---- ----
Paddy Contains phytic
acid 70 -300
mg%, adding
phytase
enzyme
increases
digestibility.

77. Wheat
Contains phytic
acid 170 -280 mg%
and treatment with
phytase enzyme
increases
digestibility.
Availability % CP% TDN%
Wheat straw 75806700 4.8 47.5
Wheat bran 7580670 17.3 71.5
WHEAT BRAN
Species Level of Inclusion
Pigs Sows 25%
Fatteners 15%
Piglets 10%
Poultry Poultry feeds 10%
Breeder mash feed 20%
Dairy Cattle 20%
Sheep Breeders & Ram lambs 15%

78. Maize
DM % CP % TDN %
Maize Stover 91.1 4.13 82
Maize bran 100 8.1 75
Maize gluten 89.4 23.8 74.1
Distillers
grain
90.2 29.7 79.5

79. Straws
Dry adult cattle can be maintained with
straw as a sole feed with small
quantities of protein supplements, but
extensive use is limited by factors like,
 High lignin & oxalic acid content
 Dustiness & reduced palatability
 Reduced calcium absorbability

80. Straw Treatment
• Alkali treatment:
1.25 % NaOH @ 1 Lt sol. /kg straw.
• Soaking straw in water:
Soaking 1 kg straw in 1 lit of water decrease dustiness.
• Impregnation of straw with urea - molasses:
Increase palatability.
• Ammonia treatment:
Treating straws with ammonia gas without adding water
increase nitrogen content.

81. By-products from Sugar Industry Sugarcane
tops
 Include the growing points of
cane, few upper nodes &
accompanying leaves
 Cattle and buffaloes relish
chaffed sugarcane tops
 Serves as roughage
 Can be converted into silage of
good quality & palatability
Sugar tops TDN % DCP %
Sugarcane top
silage
12 0.33
Sugarcane top
silage with
molasses
13.9 0.45

82. Sugarcane Bagasse
• It is a fibrous residue of
sugarcane stalks after juice
has been pressed out in sugar
factories.
• It is of 2 types-
 finer bagasse &
 coarser bagasse.
• Dry matter digestibility of
sugarcane bagasse is 12-14%.
CP % CF %
Finer 2.23-4.74 36.52-42.1
Coarser 1.76-3.32 40.49-
43.22

83. Molasses
 Byproduct of raw sugar
syrup, containing nearly 45%
sugar.
 Good energy source for
livestock feed (75% TDN)
 Enhances palatability
 Agent for reducing dustiness
in feed
 Binder for pellets
 Carrier for urea
Beet Cane
TDN 71 65
DE 2500 2350
CP 10 5

84. Molasses
Press Mud
Byproduct of sugar industry during
precipitation..& can be used as mineral
supplement for cattle
Condensed molasses soluble
Byproduct of various fermentation
processes in which molasses is used to
produce alcohol, yeast, MSG…
Dried yeast sludge
Obtained after fermentation of molasses
to alcohol
%
Moisture 5.6
Organic
content
64
Ash 30

85. Oil seeds and Cakes Guar Meal
• It contains 40-45% protein
• Good source of amino acids
like Lysine 2.25%, cysteine
1.16% & glycine 4.61%
• Contains 2 deleterious factors
Residual gum (galactomannin) - it is
a polysaccharide which is neither,
digested nor absorbed, about 18% of
guar meal.
Trypsin Inhibitor.
Cattle Adults 10-15%
Calves 5-10 %
Poultry Up to 20 %

86. Niger Cake
 Richer in available lysine &
methionine content than GNC
 Inclusion level: 10-15% in the
concentrate mixture in cattle.
 In lactating animal, it may bring
down the milk solids concentration
TDN 50%
DCP 33%
CF 14-18%
ME 2700 K
Cal/Kg

87. Karanja
Cake Moderately rich in all EAA
 Lysine 5.6% & Methionine 0.1% of
total protein
 Contain polyphenolic compounds :
karanjin, pongapin, tannin ,trypsin
inhibitors - deleterious effect on
growth and production
TDN 60%
DCP 30%
CF 6-7%
ME 2200 K
Cal/Kg

88. Neem Cake
 Neem contains 34% protein and
4.4% fiber.
 It is unpalatable as such, fed along
with other feedstuffs.
 Toxic factors – Nimbidine &
Nimbine
 Inclusion level in Cattle feed - 15-
20%
TDN 60%
DCP 34%
CF 25.8%
ME 2200 K
Cal/Kg

89. Sal seed Cake
 Extraction rate is 35-40%.
 Tannins - 8-12%.
 Simple washing can also remove
60% tannin but DM is lost
 Treating with 9% urea at 50%
moisture level & subsequent storage
for 30 days can inactivate 30% of
tannin without loss of DM
TDN 50%
DCP 9%
CF 1.5%
AIA 0.8%

90. Mahua Seed
Cake Chemical composition: 14% CP, 9%
DCP, 46% TDN
 Contain toxic factors like
Mowrine(6-20%) & tannins (6.4%)
 Detoxification: Soaking in water and
stirring.
 Inclusion level: 10% in the ration of
cattle
TDN 46%
DCP 9%
ME 2200 K
Cal/Kg

91. Animal Protein Sources Blood Meal
 Dried blood collected from slaughter
plants
 Rich in Lysine, Fe & poor in Ca & P
 Inclusion less than 2%, if more
palatability & taste affected and
cannibalism may develop in
pigs/poultry
TDN 76%
CP 90%
EE 1.2%

92. Bone Meal
 Derived from bones.
 Protein is of low quality as it
doesn’t originate from
muscular tissues.
 It may included up to 3% in
feed for cattle, sheep, pigs &
up to 6% in poultry feed.
TDN 76%
CP 41%
ME 2000 K Cal

93. Blood & Bone Meal
 It comes from thermo chemical
process of slaughter refusal.
 Protein is of low quality
because of more glues from
bones & connective tissues.
 High mineral content with
14% Ca & 6% P.
TDN 62%
CP 54%
EE 10.4%

94. Feather Meal
 Feathers are treated under
high temp. & pressure
(hydrolysis)
 Rich in cysteine & methionine
TDN 62%
CP 54%
EE 10.4%
Cattle <2%
Pigs max. 2% for fatteners
Poultry max.2% for layers & broilers
Sheep <2%

95. Fish Meal
 It comes from fish, parts of fish, &
other sea animal with a limited
amount of shell (max.2% CaCO3)
 Protein is of good quality with 5%
lysine
 Strong flavor to meat & eggs
 Not included in cattle feeds
TDN 76%
CP 72%
EE 4.6%

96. Animal Fat
 Obtained from cadaver
processing.
 By exposing the tankage to super
heated steam at 130ºC animal
fat is extracted.
TDN 70%
CP 0%
EE 99%
Cattle Less than 1%
Pigs Piglets 2% & fatteners 4%
Poultry Fat used in layer & broiler feed to
meet high energy req. of birds
Sheep up to 1%

97. By- products from Forests
 Include wood, barks, fallen leaves, foliage & saw
dust.
 Wood, saw dust & barks are indigestible and
unpalatable.
 The fallen leaves or forest foliage are commercially
exploited for livestock & poultry feeding as a source
of carotene, trace elements and vitamins.

98. By-products from Forests
 The by-products available from the forest for cattle
feeding are dry leaves and seeds.
 The dry matter contents of most of the tree leaves
ranges between 30 to 45% and CP content are also
quite high (5- 12%).
 Goats relish variety in their diets and feeding tree
leaves help to extend their diet preferences.

99. Animal Origin Organic Waste Poultry
Manure• Poultry manure consists of the
dry excreta,
the feathers &
broken eggs
• Poultry excreta is of two main types: - caged layers
- deep litter

100. Poultry Manure
Caged layer manure
 Suitable for non ruminants.
 Contains 30% total protein , high in glycine, low in
arginine, lysine & methionine.
 Useful as a source of energy, Ca & P
 About 20 – 30 % are optimum levels for utilization in
poultry feeds.

101. Poultry Manure
 Up to 30% DM in the ration (4-6 kg DM/head/day)
 Up to 30% DM for fat lambs, but copper content in
litter limits level of inclusion.
 Palatability problems are overcome by ensiling or
chemical treatment.
 Molasses increases the palatability
 Adaptation must be done gradually (3-5 days).

102. Poultry By product
Meal It is the dried, ground tissues of un-
decomposed, necks, heads, fat,
carcass, feathers of poultry either of
with or without oil extraction.
 Valuable protein source, and its value
in diets for farm animals has not
been adequately studied. TDN 72%
CP 56.8%
EE 12.4%

103. • Fat is extracted from kernel and de-oiled mango
seed meal is used for livestock feeding.
• The limiting factor in this feed is the presence of
about 5 - 10% of tannins.
CP % EE % CF % DCP
%
TDN
%
8.5 12 3 6.1 50
Fruit & Vegetable By-products Mango Seed Kernel
Cake

104. • Citrus pulp is a byproduct from fruit juice or pulp
factories – Citrus Molasses
• Dried and ground citrus, orange, lemon peels can be
used in feed to extent of 10 - 15%
CP % EE % CF % DM % TDN
%
6.9 4.9 3 86 80
Mango Seed Kernel
Cake

105. Palm kernel By-products
 Palm kernels are the centers of stones within the fruit, the
stone shell needs to be removed before the kernels are
processed
 Kernels contain 50 -60 % oil.
 Palm kernels are used in high energy compound feed
 Inclusion level > 5% considering pelleting problems.
 They are included < 5% in cattle, sheep & pig rations.

106. CP % CF % EE
%
TDN
%
DE
Kcal/kg
Palm kernel cake 15 19 10 79 2650
Palm kernel
meal
15 20 2 71 2200
Palm kernel By-
products

107. • Tomato processing wastes consists of skin, pulp &
seeds after extraction of juice.
• Tomato pomace is residue from processing of pulp,
sauce, juice, paste & ketchup.
CP % EE % DM % TDN %
19.3 13.3 24.7 65.5
Tomato Processing Waste

108. • Product remaining after potatoes
have been processed to produce
frozen potato products for human
consumption.
• The product can include peelings,
culled potatoes, rejected French
fries & other products.
CP % EE % DM % TDN %
10.5 10.8 35.4 80.7
Potato Waste
Potato waste is
equal in energy
to cereal grains

109. • Moisture content shouldn’t
exceed 13 % as it facilitates
growth of fungi.
• TDN - 70-74% & CP - 3%
• Good source of energy
Cassava Meal
CATTLE Up to 30 % for adults
PIGS Sows and fatteners up to 40 %
POULTRY Up to 20 %
SHEEP Up to 25%

110. Future Need, Scope &
Trends Increasing demand & limited resources of
quality feeds.
 Use of wastes from livestock & agro-
industry reduce cost of production in one
hand, on the other hand it reduces human
animal health hazards.
 Unconventional feeds are low in DCP and
energy

111. Future Need, Scope &
Trends
 Enrich their nutrient values by practicable
pre-treatment to increases palatability,
digestibility and nutrient availability.
 Management of anti-nutritional factors to
improve utilization.
 Reduce environmental pollution from animal
wastes using newer technologies.