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1. Pastoral Communities f Deccan:
Ash Mound and Village sites of
Karnataka and Tamilnadu
Dr. Virag Sontakke
Assistant Professor
A.I.H.C. & Archaeology
Banaras Hindu University

2. Pastoral Communities f
Deccan: Ash Mound and
Village sites of
Karnataka and
Tamilnadu

3. Introduction
• The Deccan area consists of hundreds of Neolithic sites
• Neolithic sites are situated in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Karnataka and Tamilnadu
• Their concentration is mostly middle Krishna and its
tributaries like Bhima, Tungabhadra, Malprabha and
Ghatprabha.
• Due to prolong research, the knowledge of the Southern
Neolithic culture is relatively more than any other region of the
subcontinent.
• Paddayya: To date, more than 100 ash mound sites have been
documented within the South Deccan/North Dharwar region of
southern India

5. Neolithic
Ash Mounds

6. General Physiography
• The chief geological formations are the Archaean, the Dharwar, the Kadapa and
Kurnool.
• Stones: Comprising crystalline rocks such as quartz, granite, gneiss, dolerite,
schists, ferruginous quartzite, amphibolite, meta dolerite, basic dykes, etc.
• Physiographically the area generally comprises granitic outcrops with boulders
• The soil is black and red loamy and patches of sandy and brownish soils are
derived from traps and granite
• The open stretches of land are devoid of trees but along the stream banks thick
vegetation of grass, and dates palm trees are seen.
• River: The major rivers that flow in the region are the Tungabhadra and its
tributaries
• The regions support wild fauna of both small and big game.
• It experiences an average rainfall ranging from 620 to 675 mm.

7. Courtesy: Dorian Q
Fuller, Institute of
Archaeology,
University College
London

9. Previous work
• Neolithic research of the Deccan received considerable
attention
• Robert B. Foote (1872) made the first systematic attempt to
understand the lithic technology of the Southern Neolithic.
• Colonel Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor General of India,
discovered a few sites (including the famous ashmound at
Kudatini on the Bellary-Hospet road) in the opening decade of
the last century.
• M. Wheeler 1947: Bramhagiri excavations finalised the
stratigraphy
• During the 1960 Allchin, 1970 Sundara (1971), Rami Reddy
(1976) and Paddayya (1973) brought to light many additional
sites

10. • A large heaped accumulation of ash
• These are looking white in colour
• The white deposit called ash
• Local people: mass human immolation
• The monkey-king Bali,
Ash mounds

12. Courtesy: Dorian Q
Fuller, Institute of
Archaeology, University
College London

14. Stories related to Ash mounds
•Cremation ground of the demons mentioned in
Mahabharata
•It’s a geological Deposit
•It’s a formation of Volcanic ash
•Ash of Sati of the Medieval period of their husband
fought against Delhi Sultanates
•Industrial activity: smelting, melting

17. Hallur

19. Sanganakallu-Kappagallu

22. Kappagallu

24. Budihal

27. Historiography of ash Mounds: Colonial Period
• Colin Mackenzie reported for the first time
• 1836 T.J. Newbold: collected samples from Ashmound (Kupgal)
• In 1842, T.J. Newbold: took small trenches at Kupgal and collected ceramics, faunal
remains, lithics etc.
• C.V. Lutchmia: mounds were the result of mass human immolations
• T.J. Newbold: “The ashes of the slain burnt collectively after the battle”
• 1870-80, Robert B. Foote: explored southern Deccan and discovered new sites
• He was the first to denote their period and time (2700-1200 BCE)
• R.B. Foote: observed ash mounds surrounded by Neolithic deposits.
• Richard Sewell: Mass cremation of people during the Medieval period (1300-1560
CE).
• Yazdani and Woolley: Gold and iron-working area
• Chemical Analysis on Wandalli Ashmound: cattle dung component

28. Ashmound Research: Post independence
• Allchin explored the region (north Karnataka) and discovered many new
sites
• He excavated Utnur in 1957. It was the first systematic excavation of
Ashmound
• Allchin: Ashmounds were remains of the cattle pen, regularly and
ritually burned
• Allchin: Neolithic ritual involving cattle
• In 1960 Scientific research initiated
• Excavated sites: Kupgal, Kodekal, Palavoy etc.
• Mujumdar and Rajguru: Chemical and experiment archaeology
• They refuted manufacturing, mass burning activity
• They also object to Allchin’s hypothesis of a cattle pen after receiving
feldspar and quartz in the ash deposit

29. • In 1960 K. Paddayya excavated Kodekal
• Ashmound: Confirmed Neolithic origin
• Paddayya: Repetitive and cyclical dumping and burning of the dung
• In 1976
• Rami Reddy: Excavated Palvoy in AP
• Ashmound: Iron smelting workshop
• Period: Megalithic period
• In 1971, 1987
• Sundara explored the upper Krishna river Basin
• Ash mounds: Result of metallurgical activity.
Ashmound Research: Post independence

30. • In 1990, K. Paddayya
• Excavated Budihal
• Lower level: Dung surface surrounded by a thick
stone wall-like structure
• Upper deposit: burned, powdery deposit of ash
• Hypothesis: ash mound piles of secondary refute
• Paddayya: Cattle pen
Ashmound Research: Post independence

31. Ashmound research in 1990
• BADP: Bellary District Archaeological Project
• Indian and British Institutions
• Area: North Karnataka and western AP
• D. Fuller Collected micro-botanical samples from
12 sites (millets and pulses)

32. Ashmound Research after 2000
• Boivin and Johansen: a landscape approach
• Boivin (2004) explored the Karnataka area and made some hypothesis
1. Ashmound related to rock art, hilltop and similar landscape features
(boulder hill, stone formation)
2. The close proximity of the neolithic site and the feature of the view
3. Orientation of cultural pattern (terraces, ash mounds and rock art)
with east-west cardinal direction
• Example: Kudatini and Toranagulla
a. Both the site are situated on intervisibility and east-west oriented
b. Dung burning may visible from one site to another
c. Annual ritual cycle

33. Why ?
• Robert Bruce Foote (1916):
a) The seasonal movement of herds from one location to another to adjust to
the symbiotic requirements of the farmers and the herders.
• Sundara (1971; 1987) and Rami Reddy (1976; 1990)
a) Based upon the small excavations, at Palavoy in the Anantapur district and
Terdal in the Bijapur district, they assumed the iron-smelting theory,
• Allchin in 1963:
a) The rainfall was higher in the region during the Neolithic and these may be
forested regions which were burnt down for livestock
• K. Paddayya (1989-91):
a) Accumulations of dung and subsequent burning to keep their communities
clean of the vermin associated with animal faecal matter.

34. Ashmound
1. Associated with permanent settlement
2. Associated with temporary pastoral settlement
• Ashmound: belongs to the neolithic period
• Ashmound: formed through cattle dung and other culturally modified
sediments
• Ashmound: an episode of periodic firing at different temperature
• Associated with temporary pastoral settlement
• Allchin: cattle pen (in-situ)
• Padayya: Dung heaps from appended stockades
• Korisettar: Argues that ash mounds are found within a range of sites
related to Neolithic pastoral activities
• Chronology: 2700-1200 BCE

35. Ash mounds
• Ash mounds are the mounds of the neolithic period
• Ash mounds provide important clues to the lifeways of the earliest
farmers and herders in southern India.
• Ashmounds are made of stratified deposits of decomposing, burned
and vitrified cow dung along with mixed soils.
• Presence of regular lines of postholes around the mound
• Ash mounds usually contain fragments of pottery, stone tools and
animal bones.
• Ash mounds are the remains of cattle dung heaps which had been
regularly and perhaps ritually burned over the course of their many
years of use.
• The ash being constantly exposed to sunlight and rain has
eventually hardened to form a strong and hard structure from
outside.

36. Important Ash mound sites
1. Kudatini
2. Kupgal
3. Budihal
4. Nimbapur

37. Village Sites of Karnataka and Tamilnadu

38. Important Neolithic Sites of Karnataka
• Sangankallu, Bellari
• Tekkalkota, Bellari
• T. Narsinhpur, Bellari
• Kupgal, Bellari
• Maski, Raichur
• Hallur, Dharwad
• Hemmigge, Mysore
• Budihal, Gulbarga

39. Major Neolithic Sites of Tamilnadu
Sr.
No
Site Remarks
1 Paiyampalli S.R. Rao , ASI, 1964–65 and 1967-68
2 Dailamalai This site yielded large quantities of associated potteries of Neolithic and Megalithic periods.
3 Mullikkadu This site has yielded large number of Neolithic cultural remains
4 Appukkallu Ash mound locally known as Nainarkollai
5 Kallerimalai The excavations yielded black and red ware and a few ill-fired grey ware sherds resembling
the neolithic pottery and polished stone axe in the earliest level of the deposit
6 Armamalai The lower level yielded sherds of the handmade coarse, black slipped ware; burnished or
unburnished, the latter appearing to be a lingering vestige of the earlier Neolithic tradition
7 Bargur Robert Bruce Foote (1916) noticed this factory site, the tool has not yielded any tools
showing the final stage of manufacturing, No habitation site has so far been discovered

40. Budhihal
• Location: lies about 110 km south
west of the district town of
Gulbarga.
• It is situated about 1.5 km on the
left bank of the Don river, a small
tributary of the river Krishna.
• The ash mound lying about a
kilometre north of the village.
• The site was discovered by K.
Paddayya in 1965
• The site consists of IV localities
• The whole area measures 400 m
north-south and 300 m

41. • Excavator: K. Paddayya
• Year: 1991-92 to 1996-97
• Agency: DCPGRI, Pune
Budhihal
Site-Map

47. •The climate of the area is semi-arid, with an average annual
rainfall of 50 cm
•The area is ill-suited for dry farming
•It forms part of the drought-prone Deccan belt.
•Till now cattle and sheep/goat pastoralism formed an
essential ingredient of the local way of life
•Modern crop pattern: jowar, bajra, groundnut and horse gram
are the principal traditional crops, which depend on the
south-west monsoon
Budhihal: Environmental Settings

48. •Spread of the Site: 3 ha
•Exposed area: No cultural deposit but the spread of
stone tools
•This area could have acted as a tool factory site
•Tools possibly exchange in a wider area of Shorapur
Doab
•Raw Material brought from 5-6 km
•Material: Chert and limestone
Budhihal

49. • The Ashmound deposit consists
of 3 meters.
• Locality 1 was excavated
• Dozen remains of house
structures made of mud and
stones
• One was rectangular and the
rest were oval
Budhihal: Structures

50. • Red ware
• Grey ware
Budhihal: Pottery

51. • Sandstone querns: in a large number
• Ground celts
• Chert blades
• Bone: tools (axe), ornaments
• Beads: bone, shell, stones
Budhihal: Tools and other

53. Food Habits
Animal
Remains
• Cattle (domestic)
• Nilglli,
• Blackbuck
• Four-horned antelope,
• The monitor lizard,
• Birds,
• Aquatic food like
• Fish
• Crabs and
• Molluscs
Plants
remains
• Barley
• Horse gram
• Indian beans
• gramineous seeds
• the Indian jujube,
• the Indian cherry and
• the emblic myrobalan

54. Budhihal: Burials
• A total of 13 burials
• Three in the ash mound area
• Ten in the settlement area
• Mostly sub-adults, some urn contain an infant
• Buried in a pit (4) and urn (9)
• Burial goods: Pottery and chert blades

55. Budhihal: Animal Butchering floor
• Unique evidence was found.
• Stratigraphy: layer 2 (5 cm thick) consisting of faunal Material
• Chemical analyses of layer 3 consist of fine ash, pottery and charcoal
• Less pottery and tools, no dwelling and burials
• Items: chopping tools and hammerstones, and large knife-like blades of chert
• Animals: faunal material belonging to domestic cattle and, to some extent,
sheep, goat and buffalo
• View: Considering the fairly large size of the floor and a large number of bone
and lithic tool clusters found on it, it is most likely that this structural facility
was meant for common use on certain important (ceremonial?) occasions when
several animals were butchered and the meat so obtained was shared to the
whole community.

56. Budihal: Chronology
• 21 C14 dates
• Between: 2000 BCE to 1400 BCE

57. Budihal: Results
• First problem-oriented research
• Adaptation towards a semi-arid environment
• Limited agriculture
• Large-scale animal postural activity
• Huge quantity of cattle, sheep and goats
• Paddyya: Ashmounds were full-fledged neolithic settlements
• Budihal is enormous in size and probably served as local/ regional
centres where periodic congregations and
• Cattle fairs were held
• Extensive chert workshop
• Suggested agropastoral economy.

58. Tamil Nadu
• Neolithic sites are located in the
North Western part of Tamil Nadu
• Numerous polished stone axes often
called-Neolithic celts have been
reported from Krishnagiri,
Dharmapuri, Salem, Vellore and
Madurai District.
• However, no clear evidence for a
Neolithic association has been found
at these sites, and hence they cannot
be categorized under the Neolithic
Culture, without detailed
investigations.

59. Historical Background
• In Tamil Nadu, the first Neolithic stone axe was discovered by Surgeon
General Cornish in the year 1865
• The credit for placing Tamil Nadu on the Neolithic map of India goes to
R. Bruce Foote for his pioneering work in this field.
• He has collected and classified the polished stone tools.
• B. Narasimhaiah explored the north-western part and discovered many
Neolithic habitation sites.
• Many Scholars like
• S.R. Rao (1963-64), V.D.Krishnawamy (1947, 1962) K.R. Srinivasan
(1953) K.V. Raman (1969 and 1978-79), V.N.S. Desikan (1962-63), K.V.
Soundara Rajan (1964), K. Rajan (1997 and 2004), G. Thirumoorthy
(2009), V. Selvakumar (1996)

60. Major Neolithic Sites of Tamilnadu
Sr.
No
Site Remarks
1 Paiyampalli S.R. Rao , ASI, 1964–65 and 1967-68
2 Dailamalai This site yielded large quantities of associated potteries of Neolithic and Megalithic periods.
3 Mullikkadu This site has yielded large number of Neolithic cultural remains
4 Appukkallu Ash mound locally known as Nainarkollai
5 Kallerimalai The excavations yielded black and red ware and a few ill-fired grey ware sherds resembling
the neolithic pottery and polished stone axe in the earliest level of the deposit
6 Armamalai The lower level yielded sherds of the handmade coarse, black slipped ware; burnished or
unburnished, the latter appearing to be a lingering vestige of the earlier Neolithic tradition
7 Bargur Robert Bruce Foote (1916) noticed this factory site, the tool has not yielded any tools
showing the final stage of manufacturing, No habitation site has so far been discovered

61. A Picture of South Indian Neolithic

62. Ceramics
• The bulk of the pottery is handmade.
• Prominent wares: Red ware, Tan ware, Grey ware, brown ware and black ware with their
variants
• The handmade burnished black and red ware shreds with thick sections,
• Decoration: Thick walls and finger impressions on either side
• Usually, in hand-made pottery, the mouth portions of the pots are very wide
• Plain pottery mostly dominates
• The pottery with incised and combed decorations is in small quantities.
• Only one sherd painted in violet on a pale red surface was collected from Gollapalli
(Tamilnadu)
• Rajan: Neolithic Age of Tamil Nadu predominates with red ware rather than burnished grey
ware
• Paintings often found in Karnataka sites (Maski, Brahmgiri, Piklihal)
• Painting Designs: Geometrical (lines, bands)
• Use of turn-table technique and slow-wheel
• Luting is a common technique employed in spouted vessels, channel-spouted vessels

64. Ceramics of Neolithic Period
• Generally, clay mixed with gritty substances such as quartz
• Allchin, F.R. (1960) opined that the use of gritty substances provides fusion to
the pots at the time of firing
• Shapes: Bowls, high-necked vessels, pinched lips, spouts, dish-on-stands, lids
• Slip: Organic substance including mucilage or gum
• Wash: Some of the pots have simple clay wash which could have been applied
with cotton or some such material.
• Burnishing: applied on the pots with the help of smooth pebbles or bone when
the pot was in a leather hard condition.
• Burnished pots: smooth and lustrous.
• Burnishing: Shining to the pot body and sealed the porous structure
• The handmade pottery with slip and burnishing belonged to the Neolithic
period.

65. Tools
• The manufacturing technique consisted of flaking, pecking, grinding and
polishing.
• Tools: Axes and adzes
• Axe Shape: pointed butt-end type with a few blunted and truncated Axes
• Triangular, Ovoid, elliptical and quadrangular were also found.
• Stone: basalt was the most preferred rock, but Archaean schist, gneiss,
and diorite were also used.
• Objects: Axe hammers, mace heads or perforated stones, perhaps, used
as weights for digging sticks, are also found.
• Household Objects: contained mortars and pestles.
• Adze: was invariably used in carpentry work.

66. Development of
Neolithic tools

67. Polishing hollows from Choudammagudda at an initial, middle and final stage of development (Photograph by J.A. Soldevilla)

68. Partial view of the area
with polishing grooves
located in the plain below
Sanarachammagudda and
next to the modern village
of Sanganakallu
(Photograph by J.A.
Soldevilla)

69. Blade Industry
• Tools made on chert, chalcedony, jasper,
quartz etc.
• Finding the flake tools along with fluted
cores indicates that they were locally
manufactured.
• The factory sites consist of borers and
points with a tang.
• Bone tools found at Paiyampalli indicate
that the bone industry also formed an
integral part of tool manufacturing akin to
the sites from other parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Tools: awls, points, and scrapers of a
different variety.

70. Tools
• Foote: polished stone tools and among the unpolished tool
• Foote: subdivided Celts into 12 groups and Chisels into 6 types
• It was the first classification of its kind in the south Indian Neolithic, it lacks the basic
fundamental feature i.e., a function of the tool
• Allchin: divided the tools into 5 major groups such as edge tools, points, rubbers,
hammers and miscellaneous
• Tools: edge ground tools and non-edge ground tools
• Edge tools: cutting implements which include axes, adzes, chisels, picks and Celts
• Non-edge ground tools: rubbers, hammers, mace heads, saddle querns etc
• Axes, chisels and adzes: wood-working tools (cutting, splitting, chopping and slicing)
• Hammer stones and rubber stones: crushing and grinding cultivated grain as well as
wild vegetable food.
• The querns: grinding cultivated grain

71. Tools
• Main Tools
a) Triangular celts
b) Axe
• Microliths were also found except T. Narsinghpur
• Microliths Shape: serrated, scraper, lunate, point etc.,
• Microliths material: Chert, chalcedony, quartz, jasper, agate, flint
etc.
• Bone Tools: Palvoy (bone points), Budihal

72. Material
• Axe Raw Material:
1. Igneous
2. sedimentary and
3. Metamorphic varieties.
• The igneous rocks: dolerite and basalt which are
exclusively used

73. Settlement Pattern
• Neolithic sites are either small villages or hamlets.
• Generally lived on the tops and the slopes of hills with natural rock shelters or caves
• The hilltops or sides are levelled by removing stone boulders and filling their hollows
with rubble and silt.
• Occasionally river banks away from hills were also frequented.
• Also: Plateaus, open spaces, perennial water cisterns,
• Nature of sites: availability of land for agriculture, wild fauna for hunting and other life
activities.
• Site selection criteria: continuous water supply, availability of fertile black cotton soils,
easy availability of the raw materials for tool manufacturing, congenial environment to
live in and security against being flooded.
• Area of exposure of dolerite in dyke preferred to settle
• These granitoid hills provide ample scope for terrace cultivation.
• No evidence of settlement in rock shelters or caverns that may used as temporary resorts

74. Residing Structures:Karnataka
• Hut remains and postholes: Brhmgiri, Maski, Piklihal
•Wattle and Daub huts
• Shape: round or oval
•Material: bamboo
• Floor: rammed
• Floor: made of clay, cow dung and lime
•Repair: evidence of repetitive repair and raised height

75. Residing Structures:Tamilnadu
• Only excavated site Paiyampalli
• S.R. Rao: Neolithic people lived in pit houses.
• what circumstances made the people of this region prefer this type of
dwelling?
• When their other cultural equipment was similar to that of their counterparts
in Karnataka?
• Who did not have such dwellings? Or,
• Is this phenomenon confined only to Tamil Nadu?
• Narasimhaiah: Paiyampalli is the only site where pit-houses have been
encountered at the Neolithic level in the whole of southern Deccan
• Dwelling pits have been noticed at the Neolithic level at Nagarjunakonda
• The dwelling pit observed at Paiyampalli (Rao 1967-68:27) seems to be a
granary pit.

76. Agriculture and animal rearing
Agriculture
• Ragi,
• Chickpea (chana)
• Mung
• Kulthi
• Cattle (domestic)
• Nilglli,
• Blackbuck
• Four-horned antelope,
• the monitor lizard,
• birds,
• Aquatic food like
• Fish
• crabs and
• mollusks
• (Tekkalkota, Paiyampalli, Budihal)
Animal rearing
• Cattle,
• Goat
• Sheep
• Buffalo
• Pig
• Barley
• Horse gram
• Indian beans
• gramineous seeds
• the Indian jujube,
• the Indian cherry and
• the emblic myrobalan

77. Archaeobotanical Evidence
Site type,
Archaeological
characters
Examples Botanical preservation
Social/ economic
Interpretation
Settlements, Deep,
stratified deposits, evidence
for structures, usually on
hilltops
Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota,
Velpumadugu,
HattiBelagallu, Kurugodu,
Consistent recovery of seed
assemblages
Permanent settlement
Above agricultural plains
(occasional sites near base
of hills such as Kurugodu,
Bellary Face Hill, Watgal)
Ashmounds,
with no stratified deposits
around them
Kudatini, Godekal Utnur,
Chopadamagudda
No sediments to float
Seasonal, short-stay(?)
encampments of single
pastoral groups
Ashmounds,
with some habitation
deposits around them
Kupgal, Palavoy, also
Budihal (Paddayya 1993;
1998)
Very poor recovery of seeds
Seasonal, long-stay
encampments of pastoral
groups, in dry season.
Often multiple ashmounds
(perhaps from several
pastoral social groups).
Often near sources of lithic
raw materials

78. Burial Practices
• Neolithic Sites like Piklihal, Tekkalakota, Hallur, Brahmagiri and T.
Narsipur yielded proper human burials.
• Near the huts
a) Different types of burial practices
1. Inhumation (complete)
2. Fractional
3. Urn
• Dead buried under the houses
• Beneath the floor or
• Extended position
• Burial Furniture: stone tools, microliths,
• Children generally buried in urn

79. Rock Art
Famous site: Sanganakallu-Kupgal heritage
area
Subject: Naturalistic cattle, ithyphallic
figures, sexual scenes, ‘dancing’
anthropomorphic figures

80. Chronology of Deccan Neolithic: Sub-period I
• Divided into three sub-periods
• Sub-Period I:
• Limited ground axe
• Prominent blade tools
• Hand made pottery
• Ware: grey ware & black ware
• TC Figurines: animals
• Faunal Remains: Cattle, sheep &
goat
• Ashmounds are related to this
period
• Sites:
1. Utnur: period I
2. Piklihal: period I
3. Maski: period I
4. Brahmgiri: Period I A
• Dates: 2500-2000 BCE

81. Chronology: Sub-Period II
• Identification Marks
• More ground axe & adzes
• More microliths
• Less: grey ware
• Less: black ware
• More: polished ware
• Wattle and daub houses
• Remains of rammed floors
• Sites
1. Piklihal: late period
2. Brahmagir: Period I B
3. Sangankallu: Period I
4. Tekkalkota: Period I
5. Hallur: Period II
Dates: 2000-1800 BCE

82. • Continuity of sub-period II
• Wheel made pots
• Introduction of copper
• Influence of Chalcolithic culture
• Dates: 1400-1000 BCE
Chronology: Sub-Period III

83. Theories of Origin of Neolithic
• South-East Asia
• Wheeler 1948: East
origin (China)
(Polished tool
tradition)
• Worman 1949:
Eastern origin
• West Asia (Iranian)
• Allchin 1960:
pottery tradition
• Grey ware
• H.D. Sankalia: bull
figurines
• Paddaya: accept the
west-Asiatic origin
but not completely
• Indigenous
• V.D. Krishnaswamy &
B.K. Thapar: look for
Indus Valley Civilization
• A. Ghosh
• B.B. Lal
Developed independently

84. Observations
• The largest number of sites
• Suitable environmental conditions and resources
• Preferred to live on granite hills and rocks overlooking plain
• Showing engagement of a large population.
• Traits: hand-made pottery (dull grey ware), pointed-butt
polished axe, blade tools, burnt cow dung
• Acquainted with agriculture and animal rearing
• Allchin, Korisettar, Fuller: Ashmounds represent some form of
seasonal encampment by a pastoral segment of society.
• Neolithic habitations showed an overlap phase of Neolithic-
Chalcolithic and Neolithic-Megalithic culture

85. Thank
You