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1. Ancient Indian Military
Administration and
Ethics of War
Dr. Virag Sontakke
Assistant Professor
A.I.H.C. & Archaeology
Banaras Hindu University

2. 2

3. Introduction
• Since ancient times, India had a well-organised, trained army
well-versed in the art of warfare.
• The army was the most important of the seven limbs of the
state.
• Manu: “To engage in war was the best way to peace".
• The rules and regulations of the army are always changed and
influenced by the principles of the state.
• Kamandaka: Having a strong army increases the boundaries of
the state, and increases the treasury and the objectives of the
state.
• Military and war policy mentions in ancient India are found in
epics, Arthashastra, Shukraniti, Jain-Buddhist texts, Yavan,
texts, inscriptions, and inscriptions.
3

4. References
• Military and Warfare References of Ancient
India
•
• Epics
• Arthashastra
• Smritis
• Historical texts
• Jain-Buddhist texts,
• Greek texts,
• Inscriptions.
4

5. Military Forces/Types
• According to Kautilya, there are six types of army
1. मौल
2. भृत्य या भृतक
3. श्रेणी
4. िमत्र
5. अिमत्र
6. आटिवक
• सभापवर्: 4 Types of military force (श्रेणी, अिमत्र को
छोड़कर)
• युद्धकाण्ड: 5 types of military force (श्रेणी को छोड़कर) 5

6. Maul मौल
•The Maul force was heredity
•The Maul force was a standing army.
•Kautilya: The Maul force was important
because it was enshrined by the king.
•The soldiers of the Maul force used to do
regular military exercises and exercises.
6

7. Bhrutya or Bhrutak भृत्य या भृतक
• The Bhrutya and Shreni were similar to each
other
•This force was salaried.
•This force was prepared by recruiting
soldiers in an emergency.
•The mention of Bhritya Dal occurs in the
inscription of King Dhruvasena I of
Valabhi.
7

8. Shreni श्रेणी
• The merchants used to have a Shreni for the
protection of their goods.
• Kautilya: Shreni was a well-organized troop.
• The Shreni and the Britya were said to be
similar to each other.
• In urgency, the king used to call the Shreni.
• The mention of Shreni is found in the
inscription of King Dhruvasena I of Valabhi.
8

9. Allies िमत्र
•The allied army was the army of
feudal lords.
•Their presence was mandatory during
the war.
•As per requirement, the king could
summon the army of feudatories.
9

10. अिमत्र
• In this army, the soldiers of the
conquered country lived.
• These soldiers were enlisted in the army
as slaves.
• Kautilya: Amitra army headed by a good
commander was more efficient.
• Kautilya: the soldiers of the Amitra
(unfriendly) army were experts in
robbery. 10

11. Tribal /आटिवक
•It was a tribal army.
•Mansollas: The Atvik army consisted of
Mlechchha, Nishad and Hilly people.
•Kamandaka: the solders of the Atvik
army, were naturally greedy, irreligious,
and non-Aryan.
•Kautilya: The Atvik army was eager to
commit robbery.
11

12. Division of the Army
• Primarily: four division of the army
(Chaturangini).
1. हस्ती (Elephants),
2. अश्व (Cavalry),
3. रथ (Chariots) और
4. पदाित सेना (Infantry)
• कामन्दक: सेना क
े छः अंग मानते है हस्ती, अश्व,रथ और
पदाित क
े अितिरक्त (कोष और आवागमन)।
• शांितपवर् मे सेना क
े आठ अंग बताए है हस्ती, अश्व, रथ
और पदाित क
े अलावा िविष्ट (बेगार), नाव, चर और
देिशक। 12

13. चतुरंिगणी
Elephants
हस्ती
Cavalry
अश्व
Chariots
रथ
Infantry
पदाित सेना
13

14. Historical Survey of the Army
• Generally, the ancient Indian army was Chaturangini.
• Vedic period, there is no reference to a standing army, but
mention of Patti (infantry) and Rathim (Cavalry).
• Later Vedic period, reference to horses and elephants in
addition to Patti (infantry) and Rathim (Cavalry).
• References to the Chaturangini army are found in the
Mahabharata.
• At the time of Alexander, the army of Malava and Sudraka had
four divisions.
• Mauryan had Chaturangini army.
• The Chedi king Kharavela mentions an attack against Satakarni
by a huge army of horses, Elephants, chariots and Elephants in
the Hathigumpha inscription.
14

15. Elephants गजसेना/ हस्तसेना
• The use of Elephants was important in the ancient military
system.
• Elephants were useful in war, in breaking fortifications,
crossing rivers, and enclosing cities and fortresses.
• Elephants were trained for combat.
• In the ancient world, elephants were used in warfare only
in India.
• Kautilya and Kamandaka: The use of elephants important
for warfare.
• The main reason for Chandragupta’s conquest over
Seleucus was Elephants.
• Untrained elephants can also be the reason for defeat in
battle.
• Gajasena was used in India until the British came.
15

16. 16
गजसेना

17. Cavalry/ अश्वसेना
• The cavalry was very useful in the war.
• The main reason for Alexander’s conquest was
his cavalry.
• The cavalry proved to be essential in battle by
being energetic and swift.
• Horse training was taught in ancient India
because of the significance of Cavalry.
• The horses of Kamboja and Gandhara were
useful for warfare.
17

18. 18
अश्वसेना

19. रथसेना /Chariots
• In the ancient military system, Chariots had
the highest position.
• The chariot used in the war was called
“Sangramik” (सांग्रािमक).
• Porus chariot army was involved in the battle
against Alexander.
• Chandragupta’s army had 8000 chariots.
• In the later periods, the use of Chariots
decreased.
• Altekar: by the time of Harsha, the Chariots
army was almost finished. 19

20. 20
रथसेना

21. Infantry/ अश्वसेना
• The Infantry was important in every war.
• The first unit of the army was the Infantry.
• They had the largest number of soldiers in the
armies.
• The Infantry used four weapons prominently.
1. खड़ग
2. धनुष-बाण
3. भाला
4. करवाल
21

22. 22
पदाित सेना

23. Navy नौसेना
• The Navy has been an important part of the army
since ancient times.
• The Navy was mentioned in Vedic literature and
Mahabharata.
• Chandragupta Maurya’s army had a naval force.
• Megasthenes also mentions the naval force of the
Mauryan army.
• Indo-Roman trade during the Satavahana period is
an example of the advanced state of Indian
shipping.
• The navy of the Chola dynasty was very advanced,
due to which the Cholas influenced the entire
southeast Asia. 23

24. Ship on Satavahana coin 24

25. Army
• The ancient kings kept a huge army.
• Ramayana: Shatrughna took 4000 horses, 2000
chariots, and 100 elephants to fight
Lavanasura.
• Greek Authors: The Nanda Empire had
2,00,000 infantry, 30,000 horsemen, 9000
elephants and 8000 chariots.
• Megasthenes: Chandragupta had 600,000
infantry, 3000 horses, and 9000 elephants.
• Invasion against the Pala kingdom, Harsha had
5000 elephants, 2000 horses and 50000
infantry. 25

26. Nature of Akshohini Army अक्षोिहणी सेना का स्वरूप
• उद्योगपवर् क
े अनुसार अक्षोिहणी सेना का स्वरूप
• एक सेना मे
1. ५०० हाथी
2. ५०० रथ
3. १५०० घोड़ें
4. २५०० पैदल सैिनक
१० सेनाओं की १ प्रूतना
१० प्रूतनाओ की १ वािहनी
१० वािहिनयों की १ ध्विजनी
१० ध्विजनीओं की १ चमू
और
१० चमुओ की १ अक्षोिहणी
महाभारत क
े युद्ध समय कौरवों क
े पास ११ तथा पाण्डवो क
े पास ७ अक्षोिहणी सेना थी। 26

27. Military Arrangements
• According to Shukranitsara in military combination:
1. A line of 5-6 soldiers: Pattiya (पित्तय) officers on him
2. There was one Gomilk (ग़ोिमल्क) on 30 Pattipal (पित्तपाल).
3. There was one Shatanik (शतानीक) for 100 Gomilcas (ग़ोिमल्क). He has
an assistant of Anushatik (अनुशितक) a fighter and a writer.
4. The lord of 20 elephants or horses was called a Nayak.
5. Each of these officers wore his badge on his clothes.
6. Megasthenes Maurya says about the military combination that
7. An administrative body looked after military duties, which had 6
parts and each section had 5 members.
8. Navy
9. The second part was bullock carts, which were used to carry food
and other goods
10. Infantry
11. Horse-rider
12. Chariot
13. Elephant
27

28. Military Camp/सैन्य-िशिवर
• The place of stay of the armies was called the
military camp.
• The military camp was also known as Upkarya
(उपकायार्), Senanivesh (सेनािनवेश), Cuttack (कटक).
• Military camps were built on high grounds.
• Water should be available near the military
camps.
• The forest near the military camp was also
considered appropriate.
• Proper security arrangements were made for
the military camps.
• Without permission, there was no entry into
the military camp.
28

29. Practical rules of the army
•According to Shukraniti
1. Soldiers should stay away (but not too far)
from the villages.
2. There should be no money transactions
between villagers and soldiers.
3. The king should open shops for the soldiers.
4. Soldiers should not enter the villages
without the permission of the king.
29

30. Auxiliary parts of the Army
• When the army was at war, diverse means and help
were required.
• Carriers for carrying military materials, logistics,
weapons
• Intelligence Assistant (Spies)
• Vehicles for carrying goods
• Clerk and Minister's Office for Expenditure
Account
• Medical teams and their resources
• Engineer (to repair paths and bridges)
• Dancers, instrumentalists, prostitutes etc.
30

31. Army Officers
• Various officers in the army to keep the army
disciplined and under control.
• The king himself was the supreme commander.
• The king appointed commander-in-chief.
• Reference of सेनानी found in the Rigvedic period.
• Later Vedic period: the सेनानी acted as the
commander-in-chief.
• Ramayana and Mahabharata: various parts of
the army and their chiefs have been discussed.
• Kautilya: 18 tirthas and 27 Chiefs.
31

32. Army officers in the Mauryan period
• In the Mauryan period, apart from the commander-in-chief,
separate officers for different military departments.
• Patdhakshaya (पतधक्ष्य): Commander of infantry
• Rathadhipati (रथािधपती): The commander of the chariot army
• Horseman (अश्वाध्यक्ष): Commander of the Horse
• Gajadhakshaya (गजाधक्ष्य): The commander of Elephants
• Navadhakshya (नवाध्यक्ष): Commander of the Navy
In addition,
• Nayak (Operating the Army in Wartime)
• Durgapala (protection of the fortifications of the empire)
• Dauvarika (Defense of the Kin’s Interior/Palace)
• Antarvarshik (अन्तविशर् क): King's Bodyguard
32

33. Army officers in the Gupta period
• Mahabaladhikarita (महाबलािधक
ृ त): The highest officer of the
army after the king.
• Mahapillupathi (महािपलुपित): Chief of the army of elephants.
• Bhatashvapati (भटाश्वपित): Chief of the cavalry
• Ranbhandagarika (रणभंडागािरक): The Goods/weapons arranger
of the army
• Maha Sandhivigrahaka (महासंिधिवग्रहक़): Minister of Peace and
War Treaty
33

34. Elements of Army Success
• Various elements have been described in ancient texts
for the armies to get success in the war.
• Hymns मंत्र: Kautilya and Kamandaka mantras are said
to be necessary for victory in war.
1. Treasury क़ोष: The Treasury was counted in the seven
parts of the state. Booty was collected in war.
2. Vishti िविष्ट: Workers, craftsmen, carriers, and doctors
should stay with the army.
3. Other Military Forces: Maul मौल, Bhritya or Bhrutka
भृत्य या भृतक, Shreni श्रेणी, Friends army िमत्र, Amitra
अिमत्र, Atvik आटिवक.
34

35. Soldier Qualifications
• Mahabharata: People of all varnas can be
soldiers.
• Dharmsutra: People of all varnas can be soldiers,
but
1. they must be courageous,
2. controlled,
3. physically well-formed,
4. trustworthy,
5. religious and
6. hostile.
• Shanti Parva: soldiers from Gandhara, Indus,
Greek and South India were good because they
were courageous.
35

36. War
Management
36

37. Strategy of War
• War was an integral part of politics.
• The mighty kings were constantly at war.
• War was an important tool to destroy enemies.
• Since war was destructive, peace was also
expected.
• Kautilya, Manu and Kamandaka: the king should
try to win the enemy with the policy of Sam,
Daan, Danda and Bheda.
• War leads to the destruction of both sides, hence
war should be carried out only in the inevitable
situation, 37

38. Causes of war
1. Empire Expansion
2. Achieving Fame
3. To help a friend
4. For religious activities.
5. Protecting Dharma
6. Desire for feminine attainment
7. For the Dignity of Women
8. For wealth/accumulation.
9. Protection from attack
10. Out of vengeance
11. To protect against tyranny
12. Etc. 38

39. Types of War
• There are generally two types of war
1. धमर्युद्ध: A war in which rules are followed.
2. Diplomacy क
ू टयुद्ध : A war in which rules are not
followed.
Kautilya has mentioned three types of war
1. Prakashyuddha /प्रकाशयुद्ध
2. Diplomacy/ क
ू टयुद्ध
3. Tushanikyudda/ तूषनीकयुद्ध
39

40. Prakashyuddha/ प्रकाशयुद्ध
• Prakashyuddha also known as Dharmayuddha
• A face-to-face war is called a Prakashyuddha.
• This war was carried out by considering country,
time and might.
• In this, one strong warrior fights another powerful
warrior.
• Man-to-man combat.
• Many warriors do not attack one.
• In Prakashyuddha, the rules of war were followed.
40

41. Diplomacy war/ क
ू टयुद्ध
• A war carried out by deceit known as क
ू टयुद्ध.
• The rules of the scriptures were not followed in
diplomacy.
• According to Kautilya, creating fear by deceit, and
demolishing the fort was क
ू टयुद्ध.
1. burning,
2. looting,
3. killing,
4. theft,
5. stabbing unarmed etc. were under this type.
41

42. Tushnikyuddha/ तूषनीकयुद्ध
• Tushnikyuddha was also a kind of war of
diplomacy.
• In this type, an attempt was made to
1. break the leaders,
2. break the generals and ministers of the
enemy side.
• In Tushnikyuddha, the enemy was secretly
killed by poison.
• Kautilya says that when the enemy is strong,
then Tushnikyuddha should be used.
42

43. Proper place and time of war
• The right place and time have always been important
for war.
• Shukraniti: Country (Location):
1. Sufficient non-agricultural space is needed for war,
2. Where the military can conduct war exercises.
3. The enemy side should also have enough space in
that area.
Shukraniti: Kaal (Time):
1. Autumn (Sharad), Pre-winter (Hemant) and Winter
(Shishir) seasons are considered suitable for war.
2. Spring was considered to be a moderate
43

44. Rules of War
• Manu: One should not fight with deceitful or secret weapons.
• Weapons with poisonous, coarse or burning knots should not
be fought.
• Baudhayanasutra: The use of poisonous arrows was
prohibited.
• Soldiers should not be killed while drinking water.
• The soldier should not be attacked while eating food or
removing shoes.
• Women, elephants, charioteers and Brahmins should not be
killed.
• Shanti Parva: Old people and those who have straws in their
mouths should not be killed.
• The rule of mace warfare was not to hit below the navel.
• Shanti Parva: states that the injured soldiers on the enemy side
should be taken care of and released when they recover.
44

45. Major Rules of Warfare
1. Unfit and incapable of attack
2. Protection of refuge
3. Avoidance of the messenger
4. Protecting the public
5. Similarities in warriors
6. Adhering to War Time
7. Proper behaviour towards the conquered
enemy
8. Adherence to the rules of war
45

46. Unfit and incapable of attack
• Attacking women, children, and sleeping persons was strictly
prohibited.
• Manu: One should not attack
1. impotent,
2. surrendering,
3. asleep,
4. unconscious,
5. naked,
6. a surrendered person,
7. unarmed,
8. person watching war,
9. highly victimized,
10. injured,
11. running away from the war zone, etc.
• Women and children were considered inferior in war.
• The killing of messengers were prohibited. 46

47. Protection of refuge
•It’s a duty to protect refuge in war.
•The king must protect the enemy
who comes to shelter.
•It was considered a great sin to kill
and punish refugees.
47

48. Messenger
•The killing of the messenger was
prohibited.
•The messenger was not killed even if he
spoke unpleasant and inappropriately.
•Even if he was more arrogant, he could
not be killed but defaced.
•Chola Kings defaced the messengers of
the Chalukya dynasty
48

49. Protecting the public
•Attacking the general public at the time of
war was considered an injustice.
•Attacks on agriculturists and traders have
been called injustice.
•The army that marched in the war also did
not cause any damage to crops.
•Megasthenes: Even in times of war,
farmers used to do agriculture and normal
life was not harmed.
49

50. Similarities in Warriors
• It was considered to have equal strength,
harmony and balance in warriors.
• One strong warrior should fight only with
another strong warrior, this was the rule.
• Shukraniti: There should be a battle of Elephant
with Elephant, Horse rider with Horse rider
and infantry with infantry.
• It is considered to be a war with the armed
with the armed.
• Striking one by several soldiers was considered
reprehensible.
50

51. Adhering to time in war
•In ancient India, there was a tradition of
fighting wars in the daytime.
•It was forbidden to fight after sunset.
•Night warfare was considered unfair.
•However, many examples of night wars
are found in Indian history.
51

52. Behaviors towards the conquered enemy
•It was considered to behave properly
with the conquered enemy.
•Any defeated king deserves forgiveness
and gentlemanly behaviour.
•Manu: A conquered king should not do
such a thing that will cause pain to the
defeated king and the citizens.
•The king who surrendered was returned
to the kingdom with respect.
•The examples of which we find in
Samudragupta’s Prayag Prashasti. 52

53. Conclusion
• Ancient India was superior in military organization,
war strategy, military technology and management.
• There was a Chaturangini army in the Mauryan
period.
• In the Gupta period, along with the organized army of
the state, the feudal army also came into use.
• In ancient India, emphasis was given to rules, conduct
and behaviour in wars.
• Both warring sides were expected to abide by the
rules of war.
• During medieval India (invasion of Turks), the Indian
Army appeared weak in superior cavalry, skilled
warfare, and advanced weapons.
53

54. Thank Your
54