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1. Early farming communities of Central India:
Neolithic remains of Belan valley, Vindhyan foot-
hills
Dr. Virag Sontakke
Assistant Professor
A.I.H.C. & Archaeology
Banaras Hindu University

2. Early farming
communities of Central
India: Neolithic remains
of Belan valley,
Vidnhyan foot-hills and
Ganga plains

3. Neolithic Period
• Last stage of the stone age/Paleolithic
• Advanced change in human development
• The period of food producing
• Large-scale domestication of animals
• Consumption of flora (plant food)
• Stone tools: Polished stone axes, Adze, hammer
stones, anvils, querns and mullers

4. Neolithic
1. Cultivated crops and domesticated animals.
2. Established permanent settlements,
3. Agriculture was discovered in the Neolithic period.
4. They raised goats, sheep and oxen for their meat and other
products and uses.
5. Pottery was used for food storage.
6. People started to live in villages during the Neolithic period.
7. People started to make cloth with simple looms; bake clay
into pottery; fish with nets, and raise animals and crops.
8. Time: 10000-2000 BCE

5. Neolithic

6. Neolithic

8. Vindhyan Neolithic
• Vindhyan Neolithic is characterized by
1. Sedentism,
2. Characteristic pottery,
3. Rounded polished stone objects,
4. Bone tools,
5. Chert blades, Scrappers
6. An economy based on domesticated cattle and rice
agriculture

10. after
Tewari
2004

11. Neolithic of Vindhya and Belan Valley
1. Koldihwa
2. Mahagara
3. Tokwa
4. Agiabir
5. Pachoh
6. Sakas

12. After Singh et. al 2022

13. After Singh et. al 2022

14. Koldihwa
• Location: 80 km N-E from
Prayagraj
• Situation: on the left bank of
Belan
• Habitation Remains: Mound
(500 x 200 m.)
• Excavation: G.R. Sharma
• Culture sequence:
I. Neolithic
II. Chalcolithic

15. after
Tewari
2004

16. • Tools: Rounded celts with flat sides, ringstone
and microliths
• Material: Basalt and granite (for celts)
• Material: Chert, chalcedony, agate, carnelian,
jasper and quarts
Koldihwa: Tool Assemblages

17. celts

19. An example of ringstone
reuse; the ringstone is tied
around the neck of a sick
cow (photograph by S.
Bhattacharya)

20. • Hand made
• Red ware, black and red ware
• Corded and incised ware
• Thick fabric
• Ill fired
• Shape: Bowls and vases,
• Bowls: shallow, deep, straight and lipped
• Vase: pot, storage jar, a vessel with tubular spout
• Cord impression = tortoise shell?
Koldihwa: Pottery

21. Hand Made pottery

22. Cord-impressed ware

23. Bowl

24. • No proper evidence due to small excavations
• Evidence: burnt clay impressions
• Wattle-and-daub impressions
• Thatched huts, made of bamboo and mud-
plastered walls
Koldihwa: Residing structures

25. Conjectural view of house

26. Conjectural view of the house

27. Koldihwa: Food habits
• Exploited flora and fauna
• Remains of Rice
• Evidence of domesticated
Rice
• Wild grains: millets
• Objects: Querns and Mullers
• A large number of
domesticated animal bones
• A few wild too
• Numbers: 95
i. Cattles
ii. Sheep/goat
iii. Deer
iv. Horse
v. Tortoise
vi. Wild boar
vii. fish

28. Mahagara
• Location: just apposite
Koldiwha, 80 km from
Prayagraj
• Situation: on the bank of
Belan
• Excavated: G.R. Sharma,
Allahabad University
• Year: 1976-79
• Culture sequence: Neolithic

29. Mahagara: Tool Assemblages
• Rounded celts
• More microliths: blades, lunates, scrapers, borers,
tringles, trapeze
• Bone arrowheads
• Household objects: querns, mullers, hammers,
sling-balls. Ring stones
• Terracotta bead and perforated pottery discs

30. Neoliths from Mahagara (after Sharma and Mandal 1980)

31. • Four types of pottery
1. Cord impressed
2. Rusticated
3. Burnished red
4. Burnished black
• Pottery mixed with rice and
grains
• Charred conditions
Mahagara: Pottery

32. • Lived in huts
• Evidence: 18 huts
• Plan: circular, oval
• Size: 6.70 x 6.25 m.; 5.0 x 3.50 m.
• Wattle-and-daub houses
• Mud plasters on the walls
• Floors were not rammed or plastered
Mahagara: Residing place

33. Mahagara: Food habit
• Too many animal bones
• 151 animal bones
i. Cattles
ii. Sheep/goat
iii. Deer
iv. Antelope
v. Horse
vi. Tortoise
vii. Wild boar
viii. Fish
• Cattle bones were mostly
domesticated
• Followed by Sheep/goat
• Horse: pony?
• Antelope: used for antlers

34. Tokwa
• Location: Mirjhapur, 68 km from the district head.
• Situated: Confluence of the Belan and Adwa rivers
• Discovered in: Colonial period
• Re-explore: 1999
• Excavations: 2000, 2002
• Director: Mishra
• Culture sequence:
1. Neolithic,
2. Chalcolithic and
3. Iron Age

36. • Hand made
a) Cord impressed
b) Rusticated
c) Burnished red
d) Burnished black
Tokwa: Pottery

37. Tokwa: Material remains
• Bone Arrowhead
• Semi-precious stone beads
• Terracotta beads
• Querns
• Mullers
• Microliths

38. Tokwa: Food habits
• Plant exploitation
a) Rice
b) Barley
c) Til
d) Moong
e) Fruits
f) beans
• Consumption of Animal Bones
• Wild and domesticated
• Numbers: 235
• Domesticated:
i. Cattle
ii. Sheep/goat
• Wild:
a) Gaur
b) Nilgai
c) Back-buck
d) Birds
e) Fish
f) Single molluscan species

39. 14C radiocarbon dates of charcoal
samples from Tokwa
Calibrated date (BCE)
1. 1685–1464
2. 5976–5561
3. 1860–1622

40. Agiabir
• The multi-culture site of Agiabir
located on the left bank of river
Ganga
• In district Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh
• The site was first excavated for
three field seasons between 1999
and 2001
• Again in 2005-07 for two field
seasons
• In 2016 (Neolithic Period) deposit
(50 cm) has been was found from
Trench 14, Trench 16 and Trench 21.
• Director: Dr. A.K. Singh
• Agency: BHU

41. Animal Remains
1.Bos indicus
2.Ovis aries
3.Canis familiaris
4.Canis aureus
5.Axis axis
6.Cervus unicolor
7.Muntiacus muntjak
8.Sus scrofa
9.Sperata seenghala
10.Lamellidens sp.

42. Bos indicus Ovis aries
Sperata seenghala
Lamellidens sp.
Sperata seenghala
Animals Reported from Agiabir

43. Axis axis
Cervus unicolor
Muntiacus muntjak
Sus scrofa Animals Reported from Agiabir

44. Canis familiaris
Canis aureus
Animals Reported from Agiabir

45. Pachoh
• Location: in Allahabad district
• Situated: on the right bank of Belan
• Excavator: G.R. Sharma, University of Allahabad
• Year: 1975-76
• Site: Disturbed nature

46. • Pottery
• Brunt clay lumps
• Ring stones
• Rounded celts
• Microliths: retouched blades, backed blades,
scrapers, points
Pachoh: Excavations Results

47. After Pokhriya 2008

48. Oryza sativa L. (cultivated rice)
Reported: Koldihwa, Mahagra, Tokwa, Senuwar

49. Hordeum vulgare L. emend. Bowden (hulled barley)
Reported: Mahagra and Tokwa, Senuwar

50. Triticum sphaerococcum
Perc. (dwarf wheat)
Reported: Senuwar, Tokwa

51. Triticum aestivum L. emend. Thell. (bread wheat)
Reported: Senuwar

52. Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (ragi millet)
Reported: Senuwar

53. Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (jowar millet)
Reported: Senuwar

54. Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil)
Reported: Mahagra, Tokwa
and Senuwar

55. Pisum arvense (L.) Poir (field pea)
Reported: Tokwa and Senuwar

56. Lathyrus sativus L. (grass pea)
Reported: Mahagra and Senuwar

57. Cicer arietinum L. (chick pea)
Reported: Mahagra, Senuwar

58. Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdcourt (horse gram)
Reported: Senuwar

59. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek (green gram)
Reported: Mahagra, Tokwa
Moong

60. udad
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (black gram)
Reported: Mahagra

61. Cajanus cajan L. (pigeon pea)
Reported: Mahagra

62. Linum usitatissimum L. (linseed)
Reported: Tokwa

63. Brassica juncea L. Czern. & Coss (field brassica)
Reported: Tokwa

64. Sakas
• Located in Sasaram (Rohtas) district of Bihar
• On the foothills of the Vindhyan-Kaimur ranges.
• 10 km. south-west of Sasaram city
• The Kaimur hill ranges are further situated 2-3 km away from this settlement.
• The modern village of Sakas is also located on an elevated moun
• Excavations in 2019
• Director: Dr. Vikas Kumar Singh and the team
• Agency: A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU
• Periods:
1. Early Farming Period (Lower levels)
2. Transition Period (Middle levels)
3. Chalcolithic Period (Upper levels)

65. Stratigraphy • Period I: Early Farming
• Period II: Transitional
• Period III: Chalcolithic

66. Location of the Site

67. Microliths

68. Ceramics
• Red slip ware
• Tan ware
• Grey ware
• Dull red ware
• Red ware
Shapes
a. Bowls
b. Vessel
c. Basins
d. Pots

69. Conclusion
• Area: Belan and Vindhya area was chosen for settlement
• Criteria: water, vegetation, stones etc.
• Pottery: Hand-made show improvement
• Tools: stones, bones, wood?
• House: Small huts (circular, oval)
• Diet: Plant and Animals
• Plant: Rice, barley, til
• Domesticated Animals: cattle, sheep/goat
• Wild Animals: deer, antelope, nilgai

70. Any Questions?