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Coins_MA, Sem.II_Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Culture.ppt

Punch-marked coins and Indo-Greek coins were important forms of currency in ancient India that provide historical and cultural insights. Punch-marked coins date from 600-200 BCE and feature irregular shapes with symbols punched into the metal. They were issued by merchant guilds and states and can explain contemporary flora, fauna, trade networks, and territorial control. Indo-Greek coins date from 200 BCE to 100 CE and were precisely die-struck in precious metals. They were produced by over 40 rulers across South Asia and Afghanistan and typically included the ruler's name and portrait with Greek or Indian religious imagery. Both coin types influenced later Indian dynasties and provide evidence of economic and cultural exchange.

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Sachin Kr Tiwary MA, Sem.II C-III Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Culture
Unit-II Coins, Seal and Sealings of the Historical Period: 5. Nature and Classifications 6. Historical Importance of coins, seals and sealings
Punch Marked Coins PMC Location Indian Sub- continent Period/Date Pre-Mauryan to Early Shunga/600- 200 BCE Material Silver, Copper Sources Literature Epigrapghs Art Shape Irregular (?) Measurement 0.6 to 1.00 mm thickness PMC Source of Material Types-02 Janapada/Local & Imperial (with 05 symbols) Purpose Trade Weight 32 Ratti or 3.4 Gram Decline Due to outer Influence & decline OF Centralize Power
Introduction Others Name- Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana, Shatmana. Nomenclature- ‘Punch-Marked Coin’ because these coins were manufactured by punching technique. Shapes- Irregular shapes are gained by cutting up silver bars & then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin. Types- • PMC can be divided into two broad groups: (1) IMPERIAL SERIES COINS - Coins having a group of five symbols on one side, the imperial series coins, as defined by PL Gupta, & found from almost all over India abundantly; (2) LOCAL OR REGIONAL COINS - Coins having less than a group of five symbols, either a group of three or four, local or regional coins. • Scholars believe that the imperial series coins were manufactured & circulated during the Mauryan rule under state authority.
PMC Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory of an Empire Trade Relation Internal & External • Issued initially by merchant Guilds & later by States, the coins represented a trade currency belonging to a period of intensive trade activity & urban development. • They are broadly classified into two periods: 1) the first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small local states) & 2) the second period (attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period).
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Important Books
Location Map of PMC Uniqueness- • They bear neither date nor any name of kings. • We only find a number of symbols punched on the face of these coins. • The symbols found on these coins are religious, mythological or astronomical in character (?). • Among the marks commonly found are the sun, the elephant, cow, chariot, horse, bull, jackal, tree, tiger or lion & dharmachakra. • The PMC were in circulation in Northern India up to the beginning of the Christian era. • In Southern India they continued to be in use for three centuries more.
Sources- Art, Inscription, Literature • They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, & Buddhist Jataka stories & lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE)- Literature. • The Jatakas give the descriptions of Kahapanas which were used very extensively in the daily life of early Indian people- Literature.. • Kahapanas are its subdivisions are also mentioned in early Pali texts like Vinayapitaka, Anguttara-nikaya & Majjhima-nikaya. In the Arhiya section of Ashtadhayayi (ca. 5th to 4th century BCE) - Literature.. • Panini refers Karshapana or pana (32 ratis) & its various subdivisions like ardhakarshapana, pada-karshapana, dvimasa (1/8 Karshapana) & masa (1/16 Karshapana) - Literature.. • Panini also mentioned other denominations of coin viz. vimastika (40 ratis), trimastika (60 rattis), satamana (100 rattis) & sana (12.5 rattis) - Literature.. • Arthasastra of Kautilya- - Literature. o Silver coins (called pana, ardha-pana, pada & ashtabhaga) & o copper coins (known as masaka, ardha-masaka, kakini & ardha-kakini). • The earliest inscriptional reference to karshapana is found in Nasik Cave inscription (ca. 119- 124 BCE) of Dakhamitra, wife of Ushavadata- Inscription. • The earliest Artistic depiction of coin is found in Bharahut railing (ca.200 BCE) - Art.
Scene of buying Jetavan Garden for Lord Buddha by Anathpindak a Businessman 200 BCE, Shunga Period, Bharahut Railing In Indian Museum, Kolkata Sources
जेतवन बुद्ध काल में श्रावस्ती का प्रसिद्ध सवहार-उद्यान जहाां गौतम बुद्धत्व प्राप्ति क े पश्चात प्राय: ठहरते थे. अश्वघोष ने बुद्धचरित, सर्ग 18 में, इि वन क े अनाथसपांडद िुदत्त द्वारा राजक ु मार जेत िे खरीदे जाने की कथा का वर्णन सकया है. इि आख्यासयका का पाली बौद्ध िासहत्य में भी वर्णन है सजिक े अनुिार िुदत्त ने इि मनोरम उद्यान को इिकी पूरी भूसम में स्वर्ण मुद्राएां सबछाकर खरीदा था और सिर बुद्ध को िांघ क े सलए दान में दे सदया था. राजक ु मार जेत ने इि धनरासि िे िात तलोां का एक सविाल प्रािाद बनवाया था जो, चीनी यात्री िाह्यान क े अनुिार, बाद में जलकर भस्म हो गया था.
Types Shakya Janapada Vidarbha/Andhra Humped Bull Mark on Saurashtra Gandhara Janapada Surasena Janapada a "fish" over a "lion," with added taurines, crescents & dots. Magadh PMC with several marks, 05 to 07 Swastik Mark on South Panchala “Bent-bar" Shatamana Kuntala Janapada Kuru Janapada
Indo Greek Coins (300 BCE- 100 BCE) “Indo-Greek kings are only known by their coins.”
Indo-Greek Coins Location Afghanistan, Pakistan, India Date 200 BCE to 100 CE Material Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze & Nickel etc. Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round to Square Measurement Various How many Rulers Total 40 Types On the basis of Metal & Size Languages Greek & Prakrit Weight Vary-Based on Metal Scripts Greek, Brahmi & Kharoshthi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
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Indo- Greek Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory of an Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God- Goddess Historical Background • Also known as Yavanarajya (Kingdom of Yavanas) & Graeco-Indian. • The Indo-Greek coins are a very important source of ancient Indian history. • The term “Indo-Greek” is generally used because these kingdoms were almost always separated from Bactria & thus differed politically from the Greco- Bactrian kingdom. • Their rule extended over: • Vast part of central Asia, • North western South Asia, • Modern areas of Afghanistan, • North western part of Pakistan, • Indian provinces of Kashmir & Punjab. • There were several dynasties & over 40 rulers of the Indo-Greek lineage who ruled over this extended time period. • And surprisingly the main sources of information about the rule of these numerous kings is the numismatic evidence.
Coinage History of Indo-Greeks • The Indo-Greek coins inaugurated a new phase in the history of South Asian coinage. • These coins carried elaborate details about their issuing authority: • The name, • The issuing year of the coin & • A portrait of the reigning monarch was die- struck with precision. • They were struck according to Attic weight standard (Attic weight was based on a drachma of 4.31 grams) Drachm menaing is an ancient Greek units of weight. • The obverse of the coins carried the portrait of the issuing monarch. • The reverse of the coin was marked by the depiction of Greek Gods & Goddesses. • The name of the monarch & his royal titles were also mentioned in the obverse & reverse in Greek. Silver Brass Gold Bullion Lead Bronze Copper Nickel Metal Used for Making Coins Physical gold and silver of high purity that is often kept in the form of bars, ingots, or coins Copper=+12–12.5% tin And sometimes non-metals, Such as phosphorus, arsenic, or silicon. Cu+Zn
Purpose- Memorial Coins- In the memorial coinage of Agathokles (where on the obverse the King is commemorated & on the reverse is Agathokles himself), posthumous titles are added to kings. Meaning of Title- Theos - “The God” Sotar- “Saviour” etc. Co-Opted System- It is believe that though the number of ruler were less but the issuance of coins are large, it means they were ruled small region wise at the same time with many other of the same dynasty. Silver Indo-Greeks Coin
Coinage History of Indo-Greeks: An Introduction • The coins which were circulated in the south of the Hindu Kush bear a more Indian touch. Biggest Hoard of Indo-Greek Coins • Afghanistan- 1. Mir Zakah hoard of Gardez, Total- 13,083 coins (2,757 Indo-Greek coins) 2. Khisht Tepe Hoard near Qunduz, coins found during excavations at the city of Ai- Khanoum (Out of 42 Indo-Greek kings who ruled, about 34 kings are known only through this hoard). Indo-Greek coins & Indian culture • A sort of cultural & religious fusion between India & Greece can be traced from these coins. • These type of coins also carried bilingual & bi-script inscriptions using the Greek & Prakrit languages; & Greek & Kharoshthi or Brahmi scripts. • The representation of Indian religious figures & symbols in the Indo-Greek coins has a greater significance for the cultural history of South Asia. • The last Indo-Greek king Strato II ended his rule circa 10 BCE, defeated by the Indo- Saka/Sythian king Rajuvula. • The Indo-Greek Kingdoms have strongly influenced their Indian subjects & Indian or nomad neighbors, as the nature of Indian art from the period suggests, along with the mention of the Yonas in Ashoka's Edicts.
Influence of Indo-Greek Coin over Indian Coins • The high standard of coinage set by the Indo-Greeks worked as a model for several other Indian dynasties for a very long period of time. • The silver coins of tribal states of Northern India Viz. Audarnbaras, Kunindas, Vaimakas, Yaudhyas" weighing 20 rattis (36 grains) definitely have followed the Hemi drachm weight standard (20 rattis) of Indo Greeks. • Few coins of Hagamasa & Raijuvala are probably hemi obules (65-67 grains) & quarter obules (36-38 grains) highly debased with lead & closely resemble to the later issues of Indo-Greeks. • It suggests that the central Indian city states probably followed the ancient Karsapana weight standards of Kakim (36 to 38 grains) & also the weight standards of Indo Greeks, the then prevalent of their silver Hemi obules (63 to 68 grains) & obules (136 grains). • The silver coins of Indo-Greeks were of the various denominations viz. Drachm (66 grains), Tetradrachm (264 grains i.e. 4 Drachms x 66=264 grains), Bbules (1/6 of Drachm=66/6=l 1 grains) & Hemi Drachm (1/2 of drachm=66/2=33 grains). They were universally followed by almost all tribal states in India“. • The copper unit of Indo-Greeks was known as 'Chalkon' which was approximately equal to a drachm i.e. between 67 grains & 70 grains. The Indo-Greek copper coins seem to have been raised to Indian standard by making the Greek Chalkon equal to half an Indian Pana.
Kushana Coins (c.100r- 375 CE)
Coins of Kushana Dynasty Location Afghanistan, Pakistan, India Date c. 100 - 375 CE Material Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round Measurement Vary Metal wise Weight 12 g and 1.5 g. Types 04 Languages Greek, Sanskrit, Bactrian Influenced by Roman, Greeks Influenced to Indian Coinage System Scripts Greek, Brahmi & Kharoshthi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
Books B.N.Mukherjee
Nomenclature
Kushan Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory of an Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God- Goddess Historical Background • The first self-proclaimed Kushan king, Heraios (ruled: 1– 30 AD), was one short step away from being a Yuezhi tribesman. • Thus it fell to his successor Kujula Kadphises to assume the role of a true monarch and unite the disparate and quarrelsome Yuezhi tribes under the Kushan banner during the 1st century AD. • After gradually wresting control of Bactria from the Scythians and the Indo-Parthians, Kujula Kadphises moved the Kushan tribes into the region known as Gandhara (northeast Afghanistan and northern Pakistan) with the main capital located at Taxila (northwestern Pakistan) and the summer capital at Begram (known in ancient times as Kapisa, near the present-day Bagram Air Base), which also served as a major trading center. • The Kushana's coins reveals a great deal about the rulers, coins were used as a media to propagate Kings superiority. They reveal how the images of kings wished to be seen, and the religious practice.
Coinage History of Kushana • Gold coins issued by the Kushans were of great complexity. • The coins speak about the prosperity of people and show the figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing at altar and deities belonging to various religions. • The coins also signify that Kushans were in direct contact with the Romans. • Kushan coins depict deities ranging form Helios and Heracles to the Buddha and Shakyamuni Buddha, to Ahura Mazda, Mithra and Atar, the Zoroastrian fire god. • The coins during his rule prove that he honoured a medley of Gods - Zoroastrian, Greek, Mitraic and Indian. • The prominent Indian deity was God Shiva. • The coins of Kadphises show that his authority extended upto Banaras and also till Indus basin. Gold + Silver Mix Silver Gold Bronze Copper Metal Used for Making Coins
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KushanTamgas.gif Tamga on the Coins of Kushana issued by their Rulers: • The tamga was normally the emblem of a particular tribe, clan or family. • They were common among the Eurasian nomads throughout Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages • (including Iranians (Alans, Sarmati ans, Scythians), • Mongols and • Turkic peoples • Central Asia etc.. Tamga
Depiction of Divine Deity on the Coins The divine investiture of Kings was the concept in ancient time, which justified them to rule over their subjects and the one whom they had conquered. They insisted that it is God's wish that they rule over their subjects. They began depicting effigies of Gods who bestowed the kings. 1. The copper coinage of Kujula had Greek deity Heracles which shows the influence of Pahlavas. 2. Vima- Vima used only one deity on his coins, a n Indian god SHIVA standing with his humped bull-Nandi. 3. Kanishka-I- The Bactrian deities depicted in the initial issues of Kanishka's coins. I. Elios - a solar deity, II. Nania - a multivalent goddess, III. Salene - the moon goddess, IV. Ephaistos - the god of Fire. The second issues of coins were with Bactrian names instead of Greek, for the same God named as Miiro, Mao, Nana and Athso depicted with the fire on two shoulders with a greek legend Athsho (Zoroastrian Fire God). V. Buddha - Gautama Buddha - Maitreya. VI. Greek legend Lrooaspo probably represented a Zoroastrian "God of Horse" VII. A four armed King sitting on a Simhasana (throne with Lion legs) with a greek legend Manaobago, signified that he is son of the moon (Vohu Mano, the Concience - a Zoroastrian angel). VIII. The Greek Wind God carrying a mantle represented in the pose of a runner was subsequently replaced with a Bactrian name Oado instead of greek name Anemos. IX. Oesho is depicted with a trident in hand, erect phallus and with four arms. https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/kushana/kus_deities.html
Depiction of Divine Deity on the Coins https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/kushana/kus_deities.html 4. Huvishka With Greek, Indian, Zoroastrian and Bactrian deities (Pidti, Ardochsho, Miiro, Oado). I. Goddesses Uma (Ommo in Bactrian) and Simhavahini Durga with her vehicle Lion. II. The representation of Nana with Oesho. III. Nana appearing with Siva was intended to represent his consort Uma- Ommo. IV. A eagle can be seen on the right hand of Yama (Iamsho). V. Winged female figure Nimbate standing to left holding a cornucopiae in the left hand and a wreath or a trophy in the right hand identified as the deity Oanindo (Goddess of victory). VI. Greek legend "WORMOZDO" with a image on the reverse represented by a bearded male deity nimbate standing to left, and holding a scepter in the left and a wreath on the right hand. VII. It signifies the supreme God of Iranian religion 'Auhramazda’. VIII. The greek legend 'RIOM' on some of the coins shows the Indian Goddess of fortune 'Riddi' (Kubera's wife). 5. Later Kushana rulers (VasudevaI, KanishkaII, Vashishka) I. Shiva or Lakshmi in their coinage absorbing themselves in Indian culture.
Coins of Gupta Period (c.320-550 CE)
Coins of Gupta Dynasty Location Indian Sub- continent Date c. 320- 550 CE Material Gold, Silver Copper, Lead Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round, Semi Square, Square Measurement Vary Metal wise Weight 12 g and 1.5 g. Types Gold- 08 (Samudragupta) Gold-06,Silver-02, Copper-02, Lead-01 (Chandragupta II) Languages Sanskrit Influenced by Kushana Period Influenced to Indian Coinage System Scripts Brahmi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
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Gupta Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory of an Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God-Goddess Musical Tools Contemporary Ornaments
Coinage History of Gupta Period • According to some scholars, the most glorious period of ancient Indian history is the rule of the Gupta dynasty. • The Guptas started their rule from a small state in eastern India. • Gradually their rule extended over a large part of south Asia. • The first of the significant Gupta rulers was Chandragupta I. • The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Samudragupta. • India prospered in almost every sphere of life during this period. • The flourishing state of economy can be ascertained from the large number of gold coins circulated by different Gupta rulers. • The Gupta gold coin is known as Dinaras. • The gold coins of the Gupta rulers are the extraordinary examples of artistic excellence. The coins depicted the ruling monarch on the obverse and carried legends with the figure of a goddess on the reverse. • The Gupta monarchs were famous for their gold coins. They also issued silver coins. However, coins made of copper, bronze or any other alloy metals are scarce. The abundance of gold coins from the Gupta era has led some scholars to regard Lead Silver Gold Bronze Copper Metal Used for Making Coins
• The rate of gold in Indian coins under the rule of Gupta rulers demonstrated a consistent monetary decay throughout the hundreds of years as it declines from 90% unadulterated gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a unimportant 75-80% under Skandagupta. • The Gold Coins of Guptas inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest case of the brilliant Indian craftsmanship that we have. • Their period begins from around 320 CE with Chandragupta I’s promotion of the throne. Child of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the genuine author of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold. • The Silver Coins of Guptas begins after the Western Satraps were overthrown by Chandragupta II. • Kumaragupta and Skandagupta proceeded with the old kind of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock sorts) furthermore presented some Maharaja Sri Gupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Ma ha raa ja Sri Gu pta Gupta & Ghatotkacha are not attested by his own Inscriptions or Coins. Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Ma ha ra ja Sri Gha to tka cha Chandragupta I (c.319-335/319-350 CE) Gold Coin of Kumaradevi Type.
• The artists depicted the ruler in various poses. • The study of these imageries is very interesting. • Mainly the images celebrated the martial qualities and the valor of the ruler. • In many coins of Samudragupta, he is depicted as carrying an axe. • In others, he is carrying a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right hand. • The coins of Kumaragupta I (c. 415-450 CE) depicted him riding an elephant and killing a lion. • Another very interesting image of Samudragupta depicted him as playing a Kachagupta of the Gupta Empire Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire
•These coins depicted both the figures of the king and queen in a standing pose. •Kumaradevi, the name of the queen of Chandragupta I is known from these coins. •But the other two kings did not mention the name of their queens in their joint issues. •The ‘Asvamedha’ or horse-sacrifice coins were issued by both Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I. •Horse sacrifice is an ancient Indian ritual in which a very powerful monarch sacrificed a horse after some elaborate rituals to demonstrate his political power. •A very few among the ancient kings of India had performed this sacrifice as it was allowed for only those with enormous power and wealth. The fact that two of the Gupta monarchs performed it is evident from their coins. •It also showed their immense power and wealth. •Almost every Gupta coin carried the figure of a goddess and an inscription in the reverse. Sanskrit was the language of the inscription. The goddess posed in either sitting or a standing position. Ramagupta of the Gupta Empire Chandragupta of the Gupta Empire Kumaragupta I of the Gupta Empire
• There were many goddess depicted in these coins. The most common was the image of Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. • Other goddesses who featured in the Gupta coins included Durga, the goddess of valor; Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges; etc. • Some of the Gupta coins, mainly the silver ones, carried the images of Garuda, a mythical bird of Indian tradition. • These coins are found in large numbers in western India. • In some cases, the Garuda is replaced by a peacock. • This variety of coins is extremely rare. And thus, carry a great value for the numismatists. • The first hoard of the Gupta coins was found at Kalighat, in Calcutta in 1783. • The coins were handed over to Warren Hastings, the British governor-general who sent them to London. Now, many of the coins of this collection can be seen at the British Museum. Skandagupta I of the Gupta Empire Purugupta of the Gupta Empire Kumaragupta II of the Gupta Empire
Manufacturing- These techniques consisted of two important processes, viz. 1) Preparing Planchets & 2) Striking coins from the Planchets. Both the techniques embody a dozen techniques for the fabrication of PMC of India. I. Techniques of preparing planchets- Planchets coin blanks were produced by various techniques. Important among them are: 1. Technique of droplet coins- The technique was used widely for producing coins at a mass scale. This technique can also be called as Bed of Charcoal Process. In this process, silver pieces of required weight were placed in a crucible in the following manner: Buttom of the crucible was filled with a layer of charcoal. 2. Techniques of scyphate/ cup-shaped coins- In this process, metal drops were prepared by the droplet technique. However, the metal drops fresh from furnace were beaten up with convex devices resulting in the saucer like shapes of the planchets. 3. Techniques for producing coins with laminated flans- In this technique, coin blanks were cut into approximate weight from metal sheets. Subsequently, the pieces were weighed on scales. If the weight of a piece was found accurate, it was sent for stamping. If the weight of a piece was found more than the stipulated weight, corner of the pieces was cut to adjust the weight. Scyphate/ cup-shaped Coin-
Technique of droplet coins Single- die technique
Techniques for producing coins with a planting of silver- A few Janapada coins are encountered which seem to be original issues of a royal mint. The only disparity observes among these coins is the metal. Here, instead of silver, these are of copper with a planting of silver. These copper coins appear to be official forgeries of the coins issued either purposely by the state or unofficially by mint authorities. In the process, planchets of baser metal were prepared either by droplet technique or by clipping from metal sheets. The planting of silver could have been carried out by one of the three different methods: The simplest method was to dip the planchets on a wash of molten silver, the coin being first cleaned in a bath of borax or potash to make the silver adhere. This method is dangerous as it involves use of mercury. Here the blank was put into an amalgam of silver dissolved in mercury & then heating it to evaporate the mercury. In the last process, planchets were prepared in base metal with a high silver content & were made to appear silvery by a process of blanching. By this process, the flan was heated over a charcoal fire in order to oxidize the copper on the surface leaving a silver-rich layer underneath. The oxide coat was removed by immersion in a saline solution. The flan was then removed by immersion in a salinsolution. The flan was then struck, & the process of striking helped to stabilize silver. Other Manufacturing Technique
Technique of cast planchets- In this technique instead of preparing planchet by any other method listed above, the blanks were being cast in moulds. In the process, molten metal was poured into round depression of a definite depth in a big mould. By the technique ingots were flattened & were ready for stamping. It appears that some of the Gandhara coins known from the Chaman Hazuri hoard were produced by this technique. Technique for metal sheets- In this process metal was first melted in crucible & was then cast into moulds. These moulds were beaten up & sheets were made out of them. These sheets were cut into strips, from which were then cut planchets of appropriate weights. These planchets were weighed. If found accurate weight they were sent for stamping. If the weight was found in excess, corners were cut to adjust the weight, & if the weight was found to less than the stipulated one, such planchets were sent for re-melting. Similar method has been narrated by Kautilya in his Arthasastra. Technique for metal sheets
II. Techniques of striking coins from planchets – Various techniques were employed to struck coins from planchets. Among them following are noteworthy: Single- die technique- Single technique was used by the Janapadas issuing coins with a single symbol. In the process, coin blanks of required weight were prepared either by droplet technique or by cutting from metal sheets. Subsequently, planchets were stamped with a die having a complete design of the intended symbol. In some cases, the die used to be smaller than the flans resulting in the full impression on the blanks. In some other cases, the dies were bigger than the flans, hence resulting in the partial impression. Double- die technique - This technique was influenced by the Greek coins. In the process, coin blank were prepared by casting method. Later on, planchets were placed upon the anvil die. On to the blanks, a punched did was placed & was hammered onto the top of the punch-die. The planchets got squeezed between the two dies & received impression of dies on the either side. Anvil dies, in case of Gandharian coins, were weakly engraved as compared with the punch-dies. The presence applied was also not sufficient. Hence resulting in the weak impression on the obverse. As compared to the die-struck technique, the punch dies of this technique were more like punches than a real die & covered the central portion of the flans. Striking coins from the Planchets
Punch-marked technique-This technique was employed by the states issuing coins with more than one symbol. In the present manufacturing process planchets of required weight were produced either by droplet technique or by cutting required pieces from metal sheets. Once the blank of required weight were ready they were stamped with either one, two, three, four of five different punches. While punching the symbols no special care was taken of the chronology & many a times they were overlapped by each other resulting in a mixture of symbols. Sometimes a punch was stamped more than once, thus having an excess of such a symbol. Repousse technique - Literary meaning of the word Repousse is ‘shaped or ornamented with patterns in relief made by hammering or pressing on the reverse side’. The technique can also be identified as Utpiditanka mudra. The first half of the word, Utapidita, stands for ‘well pressed’ & the second half for ‘devices legend’ etc. the complete word denoted the coin having devices, legend etc., pressed well from one side. The other side bears a negative impression of the obverse side in intaglio.
Shalaka (bent-bar) technique- Shalaka or Bent bar coins were issued by the Gandhara Janapada. In this process, bars were first cut from oblong ingots. The width of the ingot determined the length of the coin, the thickness remained the same & the strip was therefore cut to a width which, combined with the other two dimensions, would give approximately the required weight. After being cut, the bar was adjusted more exactly to the correct weight by chiseling at the corners. Subsequently, the blank bars were stamped with dies. The dies were impressed twice, once at each end of the bar. The faces of these dies were circular & convex, thus producing a concave incuse & accentring the curvature at the ends of the coins. The dies were subsequently wider then the bars on which they were impressed, so that the complete impression is hardily seen. However, the curvatures of the bars help in preserving the impression in circulation.
Overstriking technique- In these techniques, existing coins of the same Janapada or of a neighboring state were overstruck with new devices. This could have been done in two ways: i) Restriking & ii) Clipping In the Restriking process, existing coins were recalled from markets by the mint authorities. These old issues were restruck with a punch or punches having new devices & were put back into circulation. A general pattern observed in this process is that normally the blank or the reverse sides of the old coins were used for striking new symbols. In clipping process, existing coins of the same state or of a neighboring state were withdrawn from circulation. These coins were clipped into halves or quarters & were punched subsequently by the minting authorities with new symbols. It is observed that bigger denominations were cut into fractions by the traders without any royal symbols whereas bigger coins of other states were clipped by the mint authorities to serve them as their own issues.
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Coins_MA, Sem.II_Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Culture.ppt

  • 1.
    Sachin Kr Tiwary MA,Sem.II C-III Material Remains as Source of Ancient Indian History & Culture
  • 2.
    Unit-II Coins, Seal andSealings of the Historical Period: 5. Nature and Classifications 6. Historical Importance of coins, seals and sealings
  • 3.
    Punch Marked Coins PMC Location Indian Sub- continent Period/Date Pre-Mauryan toEarly Shunga/600- 200 BCE Material Silver, Copper Sources Literature Epigrapghs Art Shape Irregular (?) Measurement 0.6 to 1.00 mm thickness PMC Source of Material Types-02 Janapada/Local & Imperial (with 05 symbols) Purpose Trade Weight 32 Ratti or 3.4 Gram Decline Due to outer Influence & decline OF Centralize Power
  • 5.
    Introduction Others Name- Puranas,Karshapanas or Pana, Shatmana. Nomenclature- ‘Punch-Marked Coin’ because these coins were manufactured by punching technique. Shapes- Irregular shapes are gained by cutting up silver bars & then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin. Types- • PMC can be divided into two broad groups: (1) IMPERIAL SERIES COINS - Coins having a group of five symbols on one side, the imperial series coins, as defined by PL Gupta, & found from almost all over India abundantly; (2) LOCAL OR REGIONAL COINS - Coins having less than a group of five symbols, either a group of three or four, local or regional coins. • Scholars believe that the imperial series coins were manufactured & circulated during the Mauryan rule under state authority.
  • 6.
    PMC Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory of an Empire TradeRelation Internal & External • Issued initially by merchant Guilds & later by States, the coins represented a trade currency belonging to a period of intensive trade activity & urban development. • They are broadly classified into two periods: 1) the first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small local states) & 2) the second period (attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period).
  • 7.
  • 8.
  • 9.
    Location Map ofPMC Uniqueness- • They bear neither date nor any name of kings. • We only find a number of symbols punched on the face of these coins. • The symbols found on these coins are religious, mythological or astronomical in character (?). • Among the marks commonly found are the sun, the elephant, cow, chariot, horse, bull, jackal, tree, tiger or lion & dharmachakra. • The PMC were in circulation in Northern India up to the beginning of the Christian era. • In Southern India they continued to be in use for three centuries more.
  • 10.
    Sources- Art, Inscription,Literature • They are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, & Buddhist Jataka stories & lasted three centuries longer in the south than the north (600 BCE – 300 CE)- Literature. • The Jatakas give the descriptions of Kahapanas which were used very extensively in the daily life of early Indian people- Literature.. • Kahapanas are its subdivisions are also mentioned in early Pali texts like Vinayapitaka, Anguttara-nikaya & Majjhima-nikaya. In the Arhiya section of Ashtadhayayi (ca. 5th to 4th century BCE) - Literature.. • Panini refers Karshapana or pana (32 ratis) & its various subdivisions like ardhakarshapana, pada-karshapana, dvimasa (1/8 Karshapana) & masa (1/16 Karshapana) - Literature.. • Panini also mentioned other denominations of coin viz. vimastika (40 ratis), trimastika (60 rattis), satamana (100 rattis) & sana (12.5 rattis) - Literature.. • Arthasastra of Kautilya- - Literature. o Silver coins (called pana, ardha-pana, pada & ashtabhaga) & o copper coins (known as masaka, ardha-masaka, kakini & ardha-kakini). • The earliest inscriptional reference to karshapana is found in Nasik Cave inscription (ca. 119- 124 BCE) of Dakhamitra, wife of Ushavadata- Inscription. • The earliest Artistic depiction of coin is found in Bharahut railing (ca.200 BCE) - Art.
  • 11.
    Scene of buyingJetavan Garden for Lord Buddha by Anathpindak a Businessman 200 BCE, Shunga Period, Bharahut Railing In Indian Museum, Kolkata Sources
  • 12.
    जेतवन बुद्ध कालमें श्रावस्ती का प्रसिद्ध सवहार-उद्यान जहाां गौतम बुद्धत्व प्राप्ति क े पश्चात प्राय: ठहरते थे. अश्वघोष ने बुद्धचरित, सर्ग 18 में, इि वन क े अनाथसपांडद िुदत्त द्वारा राजक ु मार जेत िे खरीदे जाने की कथा का वर्णन सकया है. इि आख्यासयका का पाली बौद्ध िासहत्य में भी वर्णन है सजिक े अनुिार िुदत्त ने इि मनोरम उद्यान को इिकी पूरी भूसम में स्वर्ण मुद्राएां सबछाकर खरीदा था और सिर बुद्ध को िांघ क े सलए दान में दे सदया था. राजक ु मार जेत ने इि धनरासि िे िात तलोां का एक सविाल प्रािाद बनवाया था जो, चीनी यात्री िाह्यान क े अनुिार, बाद में जलकर भस्म हो गया था.
  • 13.
    Types Shakya Janapada Vidarbha/Andhra Humped Bull Mark on Saurashtra Gandhara Janapada SurasenaJanapada a "fish" over a "lion," with added taurines, crescents & dots. Magadh PMC with several marks, 05 to 07 Swastik Mark on South Panchala “Bent-bar" Shatamana Kuntala Janapada Kuru Janapada
  • 14.
    Indo Greek Coins (300 BCE-100 BCE) “Indo-Greek kings are only known by their coins.”
  • 15.
    Indo-Greek Coins Location Afghanistan, Pakistan, India Date 200 BCEto 100 CE Material Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze & Nickel etc. Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round to Square Measurement Various How many Rulers Total 40 Types On the basis of Metal & Size Languages Greek & Prakrit Weight Vary-Based on Metal Scripts Greek, Brahmi & Kharoshthi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
  • 16.
  • 17.
    Indo- Greek Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory ofan Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God- Goddess Historical Background • Also known as Yavanarajya (Kingdom of Yavanas) & Graeco-Indian. • The Indo-Greek coins are a very important source of ancient Indian history. • The term “Indo-Greek” is generally used because these kingdoms were almost always separated from Bactria & thus differed politically from the Greco- Bactrian kingdom. • Their rule extended over: • Vast part of central Asia, • North western South Asia, • Modern areas of Afghanistan, • North western part of Pakistan, • Indian provinces of Kashmir & Punjab. • There were several dynasties & over 40 rulers of the Indo-Greek lineage who ruled over this extended time period. • And surprisingly the main sources of information about the rule of these numerous kings is the numismatic evidence.
  • 18.
    Coinage History ofIndo-Greeks • The Indo-Greek coins inaugurated a new phase in the history of South Asian coinage. • These coins carried elaborate details about their issuing authority: • The name, • The issuing year of the coin & • A portrait of the reigning monarch was die- struck with precision. • They were struck according to Attic weight standard (Attic weight was based on a drachma of 4.31 grams) Drachm menaing is an ancient Greek units of weight. • The obverse of the coins carried the portrait of the issuing monarch. • The reverse of the coin was marked by the depiction of Greek Gods & Goddesses. • The name of the monarch & his royal titles were also mentioned in the obverse & reverse in Greek. Silver Brass Gold Bullion Lead Bronze Copper Nickel Metal Used for Making Coins Physical gold and silver of high purity that is often kept in the form of bars, ingots, or coins Copper=+12–12.5% tin And sometimes non-metals, Such as phosphorus, arsenic, or silicon. Cu+Zn
  • 19.
    Purpose- Memorial Coins- Inthe memorial coinage of Agathokles (where on the obverse the King is commemorated & on the reverse is Agathokles himself), posthumous titles are added to kings. Meaning of Title- Theos - “The God” Sotar- “Saviour” etc. Co-Opted System- It is believe that though the number of ruler were less but the issuance of coins are large, it means they were ruled small region wise at the same time with many other of the same dynasty. Silver Indo-Greeks Coin
  • 20.
    Coinage History ofIndo-Greeks: An Introduction • The coins which were circulated in the south of the Hindu Kush bear a more Indian touch. Biggest Hoard of Indo-Greek Coins • Afghanistan- 1. Mir Zakah hoard of Gardez, Total- 13,083 coins (2,757 Indo-Greek coins) 2. Khisht Tepe Hoard near Qunduz, coins found during excavations at the city of Ai- Khanoum (Out of 42 Indo-Greek kings who ruled, about 34 kings are known only through this hoard). Indo-Greek coins & Indian culture • A sort of cultural & religious fusion between India & Greece can be traced from these coins. • These type of coins also carried bilingual & bi-script inscriptions using the Greek & Prakrit languages; & Greek & Kharoshthi or Brahmi scripts. • The representation of Indian religious figures & symbols in the Indo-Greek coins has a greater significance for the cultural history of South Asia. • The last Indo-Greek king Strato II ended his rule circa 10 BCE, defeated by the Indo- Saka/Sythian king Rajuvula. • The Indo-Greek Kingdoms have strongly influenced their Indian subjects & Indian or nomad neighbors, as the nature of Indian art from the period suggests, along with the mention of the Yonas in Ashoka's Edicts.
  • 21.
    Influence of Indo-GreekCoin over Indian Coins • The high standard of coinage set by the Indo-Greeks worked as a model for several other Indian dynasties for a very long period of time. • The silver coins of tribal states of Northern India Viz. Audarnbaras, Kunindas, Vaimakas, Yaudhyas" weighing 20 rattis (36 grains) definitely have followed the Hemi drachm weight standard (20 rattis) of Indo Greeks. • Few coins of Hagamasa & Raijuvala are probably hemi obules (65-67 grains) & quarter obules (36-38 grains) highly debased with lead & closely resemble to the later issues of Indo-Greeks. • It suggests that the central Indian city states probably followed the ancient Karsapana weight standards of Kakim (36 to 38 grains) & also the weight standards of Indo Greeks, the then prevalent of their silver Hemi obules (63 to 68 grains) & obules (136 grains). • The silver coins of Indo-Greeks were of the various denominations viz. Drachm (66 grains), Tetradrachm (264 grains i.e. 4 Drachms x 66=264 grains), Bbules (1/6 of Drachm=66/6=l 1 grains) & Hemi Drachm (1/2 of drachm=66/2=33 grains). They were universally followed by almost all tribal states in India“. • The copper unit of Indo-Greeks was known as 'Chalkon' which was approximately equal to a drachm i.e. between 67 grains & 70 grains. The Indo-Greek copper coins seem to have been raised to Indian standard by making the Greek Chalkon equal to half an Indian Pana.
  • 22.
  • 23.
    Coins of Kushana Dynasty Location Afghanistan, Pakistan, India Date c.100 - 375 CE Material Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round Measurement Vary Metal wise Weight 12 g and 1.5 g. Types 04 Languages Greek, Sanskrit, Bactrian Influenced by Roman, Greeks Influenced to Indian Coinage System Scripts Greek, Brahmi & Kharoshthi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
  • 24.
  • 25.
  • 26.
    Kushan Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territory ofan Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God- Goddess Historical Background • The first self-proclaimed Kushan king, Heraios (ruled: 1– 30 AD), was one short step away from being a Yuezhi tribesman. • Thus it fell to his successor Kujula Kadphises to assume the role of a true monarch and unite the disparate and quarrelsome Yuezhi tribes under the Kushan banner during the 1st century AD. • After gradually wresting control of Bactria from the Scythians and the Indo-Parthians, Kujula Kadphises moved the Kushan tribes into the region known as Gandhara (northeast Afghanistan and northern Pakistan) with the main capital located at Taxila (northwestern Pakistan) and the summer capital at Begram (known in ancient times as Kapisa, near the present-day Bagram Air Base), which also served as a major trading center. • The Kushana's coins reveals a great deal about the rulers, coins were used as a media to propagate Kings superiority. They reveal how the images of kings wished to be seen, and the religious practice.
  • 27.
    Coinage History ofKushana • Gold coins issued by the Kushans were of great complexity. • The coins speak about the prosperity of people and show the figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing at altar and deities belonging to various religions. • The coins also signify that Kushans were in direct contact with the Romans. • Kushan coins depict deities ranging form Helios and Heracles to the Buddha and Shakyamuni Buddha, to Ahura Mazda, Mithra and Atar, the Zoroastrian fire god. • The coins during his rule prove that he honoured a medley of Gods - Zoroastrian, Greek, Mitraic and Indian. • The prominent Indian deity was God Shiva. • The coins of Kadphises show that his authority extended upto Banaras and also till Indus basin. Gold + Silver Mix Silver Gold Bronze Copper Metal Used for Making Coins
  • 28.
    https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:KushanTamgas.gif Tamga on theCoins of Kushana issued by their Rulers: • The tamga was normally the emblem of a particular tribe, clan or family. • They were common among the Eurasian nomads throughout Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages • (including Iranians (Alans, Sarmati ans, Scythians), • Mongols and • Turkic peoples • Central Asia etc.. Tamga
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    Depiction of DivineDeity on the Coins The divine investiture of Kings was the concept in ancient time, which justified them to rule over their subjects and the one whom they had conquered. They insisted that it is God's wish that they rule over their subjects. They began depicting effigies of Gods who bestowed the kings. 1. The copper coinage of Kujula had Greek deity Heracles which shows the influence of Pahlavas. 2. Vima- Vima used only one deity on his coins, a n Indian god SHIVA standing with his humped bull-Nandi. 3. Kanishka-I- The Bactrian deities depicted in the initial issues of Kanishka's coins. I. Elios - a solar deity, II. Nania - a multivalent goddess, III. Salene - the moon goddess, IV. Ephaistos - the god of Fire. The second issues of coins were with Bactrian names instead of Greek, for the same God named as Miiro, Mao, Nana and Athso depicted with the fire on two shoulders with a greek legend Athsho (Zoroastrian Fire God). V. Buddha - Gautama Buddha - Maitreya. VI. Greek legend Lrooaspo probably represented a Zoroastrian "God of Horse" VII. A four armed King sitting on a Simhasana (throne with Lion legs) with a greek legend Manaobago, signified that he is son of the moon (Vohu Mano, the Concience - a Zoroastrian angel). VIII. The Greek Wind God carrying a mantle represented in the pose of a runner was subsequently replaced with a Bactrian name Oado instead of greek name Anemos. IX. Oesho is depicted with a trident in hand, erect phallus and with four arms. https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/kushana/kus_deities.html
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    Depiction of DivineDeity on the Coins https://www.forumancientcoins.com/india/kushana/kus_deities.html 4. Huvishka With Greek, Indian, Zoroastrian and Bactrian deities (Pidti, Ardochsho, Miiro, Oado). I. Goddesses Uma (Ommo in Bactrian) and Simhavahini Durga with her vehicle Lion. II. The representation of Nana with Oesho. III. Nana appearing with Siva was intended to represent his consort Uma- Ommo. IV. A eagle can be seen on the right hand of Yama (Iamsho). V. Winged female figure Nimbate standing to left holding a cornucopiae in the left hand and a wreath or a trophy in the right hand identified as the deity Oanindo (Goddess of victory). VI. Greek legend "WORMOZDO" with a image on the reverse represented by a bearded male deity nimbate standing to left, and holding a scepter in the left and a wreath on the right hand. VII. It signifies the supreme God of Iranian religion 'Auhramazda’. VIII. The greek legend 'RIOM' on some of the coins shows the Indian Goddess of fortune 'Riddi' (Kubera's wife). 5. Later Kushana rulers (VasudevaI, KanishkaII, Vashishka) I. Shiva or Lakshmi in their coinage absorbing themselves in Indian culture.
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    Coins of GuptaPeriod (c.320-550 CE)
  • 32.
    Coins of Gupta Dynasty Location Indian Sub- continent Date c.320- 550 CE Material Gold, Silver Copper, Lead Purpose Commemo- ration, Trade Shape Round, Semi Square, Square Measurement Vary Metal wise Weight 12 g and 1.5 g. Types Gold- 08 (Samudragupta) Gold-06,Silver-02, Copper-02, Lead-01 (Chandragupta II) Languages Sanskrit Influenced by Kushana Period Influenced to Indian Coinage System Scripts Brahmi POINT TO BE DISCUSS Technique Die-struck with Precision
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  • 34.
    Gupta Coins Can explain Contemporary Flora Contemporary Fauna Important Symbols Religious- Secular Technical Advancement Trade Territoryof an Empire Trade Relation Internal & External Paleographical Development Variety of Weapons Contemporary Dresses Iconic forms of God-Goddess Musical Tools Contemporary Ornaments
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    Coinage History ofGupta Period • According to some scholars, the most glorious period of ancient Indian history is the rule of the Gupta dynasty. • The Guptas started their rule from a small state in eastern India. • Gradually their rule extended over a large part of south Asia. • The first of the significant Gupta rulers was Chandragupta I. • The most famous ruler of this dynasty was Samudragupta. • India prospered in almost every sphere of life during this period. • The flourishing state of economy can be ascertained from the large number of gold coins circulated by different Gupta rulers. • The Gupta gold coin is known as Dinaras. • The gold coins of the Gupta rulers are the extraordinary examples of artistic excellence. The coins depicted the ruling monarch on the obverse and carried legends with the figure of a goddess on the reverse. • The Gupta monarchs were famous for their gold coins. They also issued silver coins. However, coins made of copper, bronze or any other alloy metals are scarce. The abundance of gold coins from the Gupta era has led some scholars to regard Lead Silver Gold Bronze Copper Metal Used for Making Coins
  • 36.
    • The rateof gold in Indian coins under the rule of Gupta rulers demonstrated a consistent monetary decay throughout the hundreds of years as it declines from 90% unadulterated gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a unimportant 75-80% under Skandagupta. • The Gold Coins of Guptas inscriptions in Sanskrit, are the finest case of the brilliant Indian craftsmanship that we have. • Their period begins from around 320 CE with Chandragupta I’s promotion of the throne. Child of Chandragupta I-Samudragupta, the genuine author of the Gupta Empire had coinage made of gold. • The Silver Coins of Guptas begins after the Western Satraps were overthrown by Chandragupta II. • Kumaragupta and Skandagupta proceeded with the old kind of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock sorts) furthermore presented some Maharaja Sri Gupta inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Ma ha raa ja Sri Gu pta Gupta & Ghatotkacha are not attested by his own Inscriptions or Coins. Maharaja Sri Ghatotkacha inscription on the Allahabad pillar Samudragupta inscription Ma ha ra ja Sri Gha to tka cha Chandragupta I (c.319-335/319-350 CE) Gold Coin of Kumaradevi Type.
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    • The artistsdepicted the ruler in various poses. • The study of these imageries is very interesting. • Mainly the images celebrated the martial qualities and the valor of the ruler. • In many coins of Samudragupta, he is depicted as carrying an axe. • In others, he is carrying a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right hand. • The coins of Kumaragupta I (c. 415-450 CE) depicted him riding an elephant and killing a lion. • Another very interesting image of Samudragupta depicted him as playing a Kachagupta of the Gupta Empire Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire
  • 38.
    •These coins depictedboth the figures of the king and queen in a standing pose. •Kumaradevi, the name of the queen of Chandragupta I is known from these coins. •But the other two kings did not mention the name of their queens in their joint issues. •The ‘Asvamedha’ or horse-sacrifice coins were issued by both Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I. •Horse sacrifice is an ancient Indian ritual in which a very powerful monarch sacrificed a horse after some elaborate rituals to demonstrate his political power. •A very few among the ancient kings of India had performed this sacrifice as it was allowed for only those with enormous power and wealth. The fact that two of the Gupta monarchs performed it is evident from their coins. •It also showed their immense power and wealth. •Almost every Gupta coin carried the figure of a goddess and an inscription in the reverse. Sanskrit was the language of the inscription. The goddess posed in either sitting or a standing position. Ramagupta of the Gupta Empire Chandragupta of the Gupta Empire Kumaragupta I of the Gupta Empire
  • 39.
    • There weremany goddess depicted in these coins. The most common was the image of Laxmi, the goddess of wealth. • Other goddesses who featured in the Gupta coins included Durga, the goddess of valor; Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges; etc. • Some of the Gupta coins, mainly the silver ones, carried the images of Garuda, a mythical bird of Indian tradition. • These coins are found in large numbers in western India. • In some cases, the Garuda is replaced by a peacock. • This variety of coins is extremely rare. And thus, carry a great value for the numismatists. • The first hoard of the Gupta coins was found at Kalighat, in Calcutta in 1783. • The coins were handed over to Warren Hastings, the British governor-general who sent them to London. Now, many of the coins of this collection can be seen at the British Museum. Skandagupta I of the Gupta Empire Purugupta of the Gupta Empire Kumaragupta II of the Gupta Empire
  • 40.
    Manufacturing- These techniques consistedof two important processes, viz. 1) Preparing Planchets & 2) Striking coins from the Planchets. Both the techniques embody a dozen techniques for the fabrication of PMC of India. I. Techniques of preparing planchets- Planchets coin blanks were produced by various techniques. Important among them are: 1. Technique of droplet coins- The technique was used widely for producing coins at a mass scale. This technique can also be called as Bed of Charcoal Process. In this process, silver pieces of required weight were placed in a crucible in the following manner: Buttom of the crucible was filled with a layer of charcoal. 2. Techniques of scyphate/ cup-shaped coins- In this process, metal drops were prepared by the droplet technique. However, the metal drops fresh from furnace were beaten up with convex devices resulting in the saucer like shapes of the planchets. 3. Techniques for producing coins with laminated flans- In this technique, coin blanks were cut into approximate weight from metal sheets. Subsequently, the pieces were weighed on scales. If the weight of a piece was found accurate, it was sent for stamping. If the weight of a piece was found more than the stipulated weight, corner of the pieces was cut to adjust the weight. Scyphate/ cup-shaped Coin-
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    Technique of dropletcoins Single- die technique
  • 42.
    Techniques for producingcoins with a planting of silver- A few Janapada coins are encountered which seem to be original issues of a royal mint. The only disparity observes among these coins is the metal. Here, instead of silver, these are of copper with a planting of silver. These copper coins appear to be official forgeries of the coins issued either purposely by the state or unofficially by mint authorities. In the process, planchets of baser metal were prepared either by droplet technique or by clipping from metal sheets. The planting of silver could have been carried out by one of the three different methods: The simplest method was to dip the planchets on a wash of molten silver, the coin being first cleaned in a bath of borax or potash to make the silver adhere. This method is dangerous as it involves use of mercury. Here the blank was put into an amalgam of silver dissolved in mercury & then heating it to evaporate the mercury. In the last process, planchets were prepared in base metal with a high silver content & were made to appear silvery by a process of blanching. By this process, the flan was heated over a charcoal fire in order to oxidize the copper on the surface leaving a silver-rich layer underneath. The oxide coat was removed by immersion in a saline solution. The flan was then removed by immersion in a salinsolution. The flan was then struck, & the process of striking helped to stabilize silver. Other Manufacturing Technique
  • 43.
    Technique of castplanchets- In this technique instead of preparing planchet by any other method listed above, the blanks were being cast in moulds. In the process, molten metal was poured into round depression of a definite depth in a big mould. By the technique ingots were flattened & were ready for stamping. It appears that some of the Gandhara coins known from the Chaman Hazuri hoard were produced by this technique. Technique for metal sheets- In this process metal was first melted in crucible & was then cast into moulds. These moulds were beaten up & sheets were made out of them. These sheets were cut into strips, from which were then cut planchets of appropriate weights. These planchets were weighed. If found accurate weight they were sent for stamping. If the weight was found in excess, corners were cut to adjust the weight, & if the weight was found to less than the stipulated one, such planchets were sent for re-melting. Similar method has been narrated by Kautilya in his Arthasastra. Technique for metal sheets
  • 44.
    II. Techniques ofstriking coins from planchets – Various techniques were employed to struck coins from planchets. Among them following are noteworthy: Single- die technique- Single technique was used by the Janapadas issuing coins with a single symbol. In the process, coin blanks of required weight were prepared either by droplet technique or by cutting from metal sheets. Subsequently, planchets were stamped with a die having a complete design of the intended symbol. In some cases, the die used to be smaller than the flans resulting in the full impression on the blanks. In some other cases, the dies were bigger than the flans, hence resulting in the partial impression. Double- die technique - This technique was influenced by the Greek coins. In the process, coin blank were prepared by casting method. Later on, planchets were placed upon the anvil die. On to the blanks, a punched did was placed & was hammered onto the top of the punch-die. The planchets got squeezed between the two dies & received impression of dies on the either side. Anvil dies, in case of Gandharian coins, were weakly engraved as compared with the punch-dies. The presence applied was also not sufficient. Hence resulting in the weak impression on the obverse. As compared to the die-struck technique, the punch dies of this technique were more like punches than a real die & covered the central portion of the flans. Striking coins from the Planchets
  • 45.
    Punch-marked technique-This techniquewas employed by the states issuing coins with more than one symbol. In the present manufacturing process planchets of required weight were produced either by droplet technique or by cutting required pieces from metal sheets. Once the blank of required weight were ready they were stamped with either one, two, three, four of five different punches. While punching the symbols no special care was taken of the chronology & many a times they were overlapped by each other resulting in a mixture of symbols. Sometimes a punch was stamped more than once, thus having an excess of such a symbol. Repousse technique - Literary meaning of the word Repousse is ‘shaped or ornamented with patterns in relief made by hammering or pressing on the reverse side’. The technique can also be identified as Utpiditanka mudra. The first half of the word, Utapidita, stands for ‘well pressed’ & the second half for ‘devices legend’ etc. the complete word denoted the coin having devices, legend etc., pressed well from one side. The other side bears a negative impression of the obverse side in intaglio.
  • 46.
    Shalaka (bent-bar) technique-Shalaka or Bent bar coins were issued by the Gandhara Janapada. In this process, bars were first cut from oblong ingots. The width of the ingot determined the length of the coin, the thickness remained the same & the strip was therefore cut to a width which, combined with the other two dimensions, would give approximately the required weight. After being cut, the bar was adjusted more exactly to the correct weight by chiseling at the corners. Subsequently, the blank bars were stamped with dies. The dies were impressed twice, once at each end of the bar. The faces of these dies were circular & convex, thus producing a concave incuse & accentring the curvature at the ends of the coins. The dies were subsequently wider then the bars on which they were impressed, so that the complete impression is hardily seen. However, the curvatures of the bars help in preserving the impression in circulation.
  • 47.
    Overstriking technique- Inthese techniques, existing coins of the same Janapada or of a neighboring state were overstruck with new devices. This could have been done in two ways: i) Restriking & ii) Clipping In the Restriking process, existing coins were recalled from markets by the mint authorities. These old issues were restruck with a punch or punches having new devices & were put back into circulation. A general pattern observed in this process is that normally the blank or the reverse sides of the old coins were used for striking new symbols. In clipping process, existing coins of the same state or of a neighboring state were withdrawn from circulation. These coins were clipped into halves or quarters & were punched subsequently by the minting authorities with new symbols. It is observed that bigger denominations were cut into fractions by the traders without any royal symbols whereas bigger coins of other states were clipped by the mint authorities to serve them as their own issues.
  • 48.