A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone. The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with spongy bone. The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur.The outer surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum (peri- = “around” or “surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone.Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of compact bone .Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts .Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue ,spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Bones of the axial skeleton protect internal organs that includes skull (22), vertebral column (26), thoracic cage (25), ear bones (6) & Hyoid (1) TOTAL = 80 Bones of the appendicular skeleton facilitate movement with TOTAL 126 (64 in the upper & 62 in the lower) appendicular skeleton. 126+80=206.Skull bones: The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones can be further classified by location: Cranial bones: The 8 cranial bones form the bulk of your skull. They help to protect your brain. Facial bones: There are 14 facial bones. They’re found on the front of the skull and make up the face. Vertebral column: The vertebral column is made up 33 bones. Cervical vertebrae: These 7 bones are found in the head and neck. Thoracic vertebrae: These 12 bones are found in the upper back. Lumbar vertebrae: These 5 bones are found in the lower back. The sacrum (5) and coccyx (4) are both made up of several fused vertebrae. Thoracic cage: The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs. These bones form a protective cage around the organs of the upper part, including the heart and lungs & gives attachment to muscles involved in respiration and upper limb movement. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body of the sternum, and xiphoid process. Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs because they attached directly to the sternum in front and vertebrae at back Ribs 8-12 are known as false ribs. the last two false ribs (11 & 12), have no anterior attachment, are called floating, fluctuating or vertebral ribs. Ear bones (6): Bones of the inner ear: Inside the temporal bone are the 3 smallest bones of the body: Malleus Incus Stapes ( the smallest bone in the body) etc..

1. ANATOMICAL FEATURES OF BONES.

2. Bone tissue (osseous tissue) :
• A long bone has two parts:
the diaphysis and
the epiphysis.
• The diaphysis is the tubular
shaft that runs between the
proximal and distal ends of
the bone.
• The hollow region in the
diaphysis is called
the medullary cavity, which
is filled with yellow marrow.
• The walls of the diaphysis are
composed of dense and
hard compact bone.
• The wider section at each
end of the bone is called the
epiphysis (plural =
epiphyses), which is filled

3.  The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining
called the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”),
where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur.
The outer surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous
membrane called the periosteum (peri- = “around” or
“surrounding”).
The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone.

4. • Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer
of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of
compact bone .
The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy
bone work together to protect the internal organs.

5. BONE MARKINGS
Marking Description Example
Articulations Where two bones meet Knee joint
Head Prominent rounded surface Head of femur
Facet Flat surface Vertebrae
Condyle Rounded surface Occipital condyles
Projections Raised markings Spinous process of the vertebrae
Protuberance Protruding Chin
Process Prominence feature Transverse process of vertebra
Spine Sharp process Ischial spine
Tubercle Small, rounded process Tubercle of humerus
Tuberosity Rough surface Deltoid tuberosity
Line Slight, elongated ridge Temporal lines of the parietal bones
Crest Ridge Iliac crest
Holes Holes and depressions
Foramen (holes through which
blood vessels can pass through)
Fossa Elongated basin Mandibular fossa
Fovea Small pit
Fovea capitis on the head of the
femur
Sulcus Groove
Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal
bones
Canal Passage in bone Auditory canal
Fissure Slit through bone Auricular fissure
Foramen Hole through bone
Foramen magnum in the occipital
bone
Meatus Opening into canal External auditory meatus
Sinus Air-filled space in bone Nasal sinus

7. Bone cells : Four types of cells are found within
bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic
cells, and osteoclasts .

8. Cell type Function Location
Osteogenic cells
Develop into
osteoblasts
Deep layers of the
periosteum and the
marrow
Osteoblasts Bone formation
Growing portions of
bone, including
periosteum and
endosteum
Osteocytes
Maintain mineral
concentration of
matrix
Entrapped in matrix
Osteoclasts Bone resorption
Bone surfaces and at
sites of old, injured,
or unneeded bone

9. Compact Bone
Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the
two types of bone tissue .It can be found
under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of
long bones, where it provides support and
protection.

10. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as
cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in
lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric
circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are
found in a lattice-like network of matrix spikes
called trabeculae (singular = trabecula)

11. Blood and Nerve Supply
• The spongy bone and
medullary cavity receive
nourishment from arteries
that pass through the
compact bone.
• The arteries enter through
the nutrient
foramen (plural =
foramina), small openings
in the diaphysis.
• The osteocytes in spongy
bone are nourished by
blood vessels of the
periosteum that penetrate
spongy bone and blood
that circulates in the
marrow cavities.
• As the blood passes
through the marrow
cavities, it is collected by
veins, which then pass out

14. Axial and appendicular skeleton:
• Two parts of skeletal system known as the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
• Bones of the axial skeleton protect internal
organs that includes skull (22), vertebral column
(26), thoracic cage (25), ear bones (6) & Hyoid
(1) TOTAL = 80
• Bones of the appendicular skeleton facilitate
movement with TOTAL 126 (64 in the upper &
62 in the lower) appendicular skeleton.
126+80=206

15. AXIAL SKELETON
skull (22),
vertebral column
(26),
 thoracic cage (25),
Ear bones (6) &
Hyoid (1)
TOTAL = 80

16. Skull bones:
•The adult skull comprises 22 bones.
These bones can be further classified by
location:
•Cranial bones: The 8 cranial
bones form the bulk of your skull. They
help to protect your brain.
•Facial bones: There are 14 facial bones.
They’re found on the front of the skull
and make up the face.

18. 8 CRANIAL BONES:

19. FONTANELLES

22. 14 FACIAL BONES:

23. Vertebral column:
• The vertebral column is made up
33 bones.
• Cervical vertebrae: These 7
bones are found in the head and
neck.
• Thoracic vertebrae: These 12
bones are found in the upper back.
• Lumbar vertebrae: These 5
bones are found in the lower back.
• The sacrum (5) and coccyx
(4) are both made up of several
fused vertebrae. They help support
the weight of the body while
sitting.

29. SACRUM AND COCCYX

30. • Thoracic cage: The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum
(breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs.
• These bones form a protective cage around the organs of the
upper part, including the heart and lungs & gives attachment
to muscles involved in respiration and upper limb
movement.
• The sternum consists of the manubrium, body of the
sternum, and xiphoid process.
• Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs because they attached directly
to the sternum in front and vertebrae at back
• Ribs 8-12 are known as false ribs.
• the last two false ribs (11 & 12), have no anterior
attachment, are called floating, fluctuating or vertebral
ribs.
BONES OF THORACIC CAGE

32. Ear bones (6):
• Bones of the inner ear: Inside the temporal bone
are the 3 smallest bones of the body:
1. Malleus
2. Incus
3. Stapes (this is the smallest bone in the body
!!)
• These three bones articulate with each other and
transfer vibrations from the tympanic membrane
to the inner ear.
BONES/
OSSICLES OF INNER EAR

35. Hyoid (1): (The laryngeal skeleton)
• It is located between the trachea and the root of the tongue.
• The hyoid bone provides an anchor point.
• The movements of the laryngeal skeleton both open and close the
glottis
• Regulate the degree of tension of the vocal folds, when air is forced
through them produce vocal sounds.

36. • Appendicular skeleton:
• There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
• It consists of the bones that make up the arms and legs, as
well as the bones that attach them to the axial skeleton.
• Bones of the appendicular skeleton facilitate movement with
total 126 (64 in the upper & 62 in the lower) appendicular
skeleton
• Shoulder girdle (4)
• Upper limb (30+30 = 60)
• Pelvic girdle (2)
• Lower limb (30+30 =60)
APPENDICULAR SKELETON:

38. • Pectoral girdle:
• The pectoral girdle or
shoulder girdle is where the
arms attach to the axial
skeleton. It consist clavicle
& scapula
• Clavicle - 2 (collarbone):
Attaches medially to
manubrium of sternum &
laterally to scapula, prevents
shoulder dislocation
• Scapula - 2 (shoulder
blade): Main function is
attachment of shoulder &
movement of arms
• With humerus bone it form
shoulder joint

43. Upper limbs:
• Each arm contains 30 bones
• Humerus (1+1 = 2) is the
long bone of the upper arm
which extends from the
shoulder to the elbow.
• The proximal aspect of the
humerus articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the
scapula, forming
the shoulder joint.
• Distally, at the elbow joint,
the humerus articulates with
the head of the radius and
trochlear notch of the ulna.

45. •Radius (1+1 = 2) The radius is one of two
long bones of the forearm, found on the
thumb side.
•Ulna(1+1 = 2)The ulna is the second long
bone of the forearm, found on the pinky /little
finger side
•Extends from the elbow to the wrist
•At the elbow joint, the radius and ulna
articulate with the humerus bone
• At the wrist, the radius articulates with the
proximal row of carpal bones

47. CARPALS.METACARPALS AND
PHALANGES

48. Carpals (R- 8; L – 8 = 16):
• The carpal bones are the 8 small bones that make up the
wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm
up the fingers.

49. Metacarpals (5+5 = 10):
The metacarpals are 5 bones found in the
middle area of the hand.

50. Phalanges (14+14 = 28): The phalanges
are 14 bones that make up the fingers.

51. Pelvic girdle:
• The pelvic girdle, commonly known as the
hips, is where the legs attach to the axial
skeleton. It’s made up of 2 hipbones - one for
each leg.
• Each hip bone consists of 3 parts, known as
the:
1.Ilium: The ilium is the top portion of each
hip bone.
2.Ischium: The ischium is a curved bone that
makes up the base of each hip bone.
3.Pubis: The pubis is located in the front part
of the hip bone.

52. PELVIC GIRDLE

54. Lower limbs:
• Each leg is composed of 30 bones
• Femur. The femur is the large bone
of the upper leg.
• The femur is the only bone in the
thigh and the longest bone in the
body.
• It acts as the site of origin and
attachment of many muscles and
ligaments.
• It can be divided into three parts;
proximal, shaft and distal
• Upper part of femur connect with
the pelvis to form the hip joint & in
lower part connect with the tibia and
patella to form the knee joint.

56. TIBIA AND FIBULA :
• Tibia (Shinbone). The tibia is the main bone of the lower
leg.
• Fibula (Calf Bone) The fibula is the second bone in the
lower leg, found in the outer leg.
• Tibia and fibula are the 2 long bones located in the lower
leg. The tibia is a larger bone on the inside, and the fibula is
a smaller bone on the outside. The tibia is much thicker than
the fibula.
• In upper part it form knee joint with femur & in lower part
it connect with tarsal bones to form ankle joint.

58. •Patella. The patella is also called
the kneecap. The patella is a
small bone located in front of
the knee joint, where the
thighbone (femur) and shinbone
(tibia) meet. It protects and covers
the knee
•It connects the muscles in the
front of the thigh to the tibia.

60. •Tarsals. The tarsal bones are the
seven bones of the foot, they are:
•1. Calcaneus,
•2. Talus,
•3.Navicular,
•4.Medial cuneiform,
•5.Intermediate cuneiform
•6. Lateral cuneiform,
•7. Cuboid

62. • Metatarsal: The metatarsals are the five bones
that make up the middle area of the foot.
• The metatarsal bones are the long bones in your
foot that connect your ankle to your toes.
• They also help you balance when you stand and
walk

63. • Phalanges: The phalanges are 14 bones that comprise the
toes.
• The phalanges (single: phalanx) of the feet are the tubular
bones of the toes.
• second to fifth toes each contain a proximal, middle and
distal phalanx whereas the great toe (hallux) only contains a
proximal and distal phalanx,