Earth as a system is composed of numerous interacting parts or subsystem. Earth system science attempts to integrate the knowledge from traditional sciences, geology, atmospheric science, chemistry, biology and so on. Earth is just a small part of larger system known as the solar system.
Earth system has nearly endless array of subsystems in which matter is recycled over and over again.
Internal Structure of The Earth
Physical Layering
Determining the Earth's Internal Structure
C. The Earth's Internal Layered Structure and Composition
D. VELOCITY AND DENSITY VARIATION WITHIN THE EARTH
The immense amount of heat energy released from gravitational energy and from the decay of radioactive elements melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface.
The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
The reason for the occurrence of such a huge mass of water on the globe, is still a myth and reality. The reason goes back to the Origin of Earth itself. The exact mode of origin is not precisely known. Scientists assume, both Primary and secondary sources would have given rise to all both air and water on the earth. Two possible sources as internal source (or) external source have been proposed so far. Some of them are attributed towards the theories of origin of the earth.
Earth as a system is composed of numerous interacting parts or subsystem. Earth system science attempts to integrate the knowledge from traditional sciences, geology, atmospheric science, chemistry, biology and so on. Earth is just a small part of larger system known as the solar system.
Earth system has nearly endless array of subsystems in which matter is recycled over and over again.
Internal Structure of The Earth
Physical Layering
Determining the Earth's Internal Structure
C. The Earth's Internal Layered Structure and Composition
D. VELOCITY AND DENSITY VARIATION WITHIN THE EARTH
The immense amount of heat energy released from gravitational energy and from the decay of radioactive elements melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface.
The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
The reason for the occurrence of such a huge mass of water on the globe, is still a myth and reality. The reason goes back to the Origin of Earth itself. The exact mode of origin is not precisely known. Scientists assume, both Primary and secondary sources would have given rise to all both air and water on the earth. Two possible sources as internal source (or) external source have been proposed so far. Some of them are attributed towards the theories of origin of the earth.
A great landmass which was thought to be in the geological past, splitting into fragments drifting apart and again colliding into one another is called a supercontinent.1. VAALBARA -First ever made continent was Vaalbara which was 3.6 billion years old, it was named after kaapvaal and Pilbara which were the most ancient cratons present on that land mass. Kaapvaal is in Africa and Pilbara is in western Australia.2. UR- A supercontinent which was 3000 m.y.a and it was smaller than modern day Australia.3. KENORLAND- 2700 m.y.a famous events were HURONIAN GLACIATION. Also known as SNOWBALL EARTH.Responsible for formation of phytoplanktons.and VREDEFORT impact.4. COLUMBIA- Also called as NUNA . Period between Snowball Earth and subsequent Oxidation is called as THE BARREN BILLION.5. RODINIA- 1130 m.y.a.SECOND SNOWBALL EARTH.Also known as NEOPROTEROZOIC GLACIATION.6. PANNOTIA- 750 m.y.aThe formation of Pannotia was associated with the breakup of Rodinia into Proto- Gondwana and Proto-Laurasia. Two oceans were PANTHALSSA and Pan-African Ocean.7. PANGEA- One of the Youngest Supercontinent of all time , there are plenty of evidences of this Supercontinent. Like marine fossils from TETHYS OCEAN can be observed in Himalayas.
This article presents how planet Earth was born, how it operates and how it is protected from threats coming from outer space. In addition to showing how the Earth operates as a dynamic system, it shows how our planet will disappear completely when the Sun migrates out of Earth's orbit in about 1 billion years.
Human civilization has existed for a very short time on Earth. If we take the existence of Earth as equivalent to one year in time. Then human civilisation only appears on the last second of the last hour of the last day in the Earth’s year. Human has been fighting each other since the beginning of history. In the last century, we had two World Wars, when millions were killed. But I am the luck generation that miraculously never experienced wars, although the drums of wars are never too far away. We have arsenals of weapons that could destroy the world many times over. In my life time, I have also seen many of our children, marrying people of different races too. Our greatest enemy is ourselves. If we can survive this, there is the whole universe to explore. Finally, just remind ourselves that the longest Ice Age on Earth lasted for well over 1 billion years long and our civilisation is only 10,000 years old. 16 Jan 2022.
WE LIVE IN A STRANGE SOLAR SYSTEM
There's a lot to wonder about space. The fact is we don't know all the answers about it. We know it's vast and beautiful, but we're not really sure how vast (or how beautiful, for that matter).
Some of the things we do know, however, are downright mind-boggling. Below, I've collected some of the most amazing facts about space, so when you look up at the stars you can be ever more wowed by what you're looking at.
1. Neutron stars can spin at a rate of 600 rotations per second
Neutron stars are one of the possible evolutionary end-points of high mass stars. They're born in a core-collapse supernova star explosion and subsequently rotate extremely rapidly as a consequence of their physics. Neutron stars can rotate up to 60 times per second after born. Under special circumstances, this rate can increase to more than 600 times per second.
2. Space is completely silent
Sound waves need a medium to travel through. Since there is no atmosphere in the vacuum of space, the realm between stars will always be eerily silent.
That said, worlds with atmospheres and air pressure do allow sound to travel, hence why there's plenty of noise on Earth and likely other planets as well.
3. There is an uncountable number of stars in the known universe
We basically have no idea how many stars there are in the universe. Right now we use our estimate of how many stars there are in our own galaxy, the Milky Way. We then multiply that number by the best guesstimate of the number of galaxies in the universe. After all that math, NASA can only confidently say that say there all zillions of uncountable stars. A zillion is any uncountable amount.
An Australian National University study put their estimate at 70 sextillion. Put another way, that's 70,000 million million million
4. The Apollo astronauts' footprints on the moon will probably stay there for at least 100 million years
Since the moon doesn't have an atmosphere, there's no wind or water to erode or wash away the Apollo astronauts' mark on the moon. That means their footprints, roverprints, spaceship prints, and discarded materials will stay preserved on the moon for a very long time.
They won't stay on there forever, though. The moon still a dynamic environment. It's actually being constantly bombarded with "micrometeorites," which means that erosion is still happening on the moon, just very slowly.
5. 99 percent of our solar system's mass is the sun
Our star, the sun, is so dense that it accounts for a whopping 99 percent of the mass of our entire solar system. That's what allows it to dominate all of the planets gravitationally.
Technically, our sun is a "G-type main-sequence star" which means that every second, it fuses approximately 600 million tons of hydrogen to helium. It also converts about 4 million tons of matter to energy as a byproduct.
When the sun dies, it will become a red giant and envelop the Earth and everything on it. But don't worry: That won't happen for another
Chapter 2 Geology of Ethiopia and the Horn. The geology of Ethiopia includes rocks of the Neoproterozoic East African Orogeny, Jurassic marine sediments and Quaternary rift-related volcanism. Events that greatly shaped Ethiopian geology is the assembly and break-up of Gondwanaland and the present-day rifting of Africa.
This power point is important for all Ethiopian first year freshman universities students for the common course of Geography of Ethiopia and the Horn (GeES 1011), It is prepared on the bases of the module with additional explanations, important maps & explanatory images are included.
This power point mainly focuses on the geological history of the Earth in general and Ethiopia in particular. It is the best source of for all first year university freshman student of Ethiopia. if you are studying this course for A+ this material will definitely help. this material proven to be helpful by students of number of universities for the past four years.
[SERIES 1/4] Financial Crises on Advanced Economies
[SERIES 2/4] Dynamics of Financial Crises in Advanced
from the Frederic Mishkin's The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets
Financial Crises in Advanced Economies Chapter
Outline:
SERIES 1: Factors Causing Financial Crises
SERIES 2: Dynamics of Financial Crises in Advanced Economies
Series 3: The Great Depression
SERIES 4: The Global Financial Crisis of 2007 - 2009 (The Great Recession)
[SERIES 4/4] The Global Financial Crisis (2007 - 2009)
from the Frederic Mishkin's The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets
Financial Crises on Advanced Economies Chapter
Outline:
SERIES 1: Factors Causing Financial Crises
SERIES 2: Dynamics of Financial Crises in Advanced Economies
Series 3: The Great Depression
SERIES 4: The Global Financial Crisis of 2007 - 2009 (The Great Recession)
Other Sources:
The Causes and Effects of the 2008 Financial Crisis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9YLta5Tr2A
Banking Industry: Structure and Competition
Chapter 13 of Mishkin's The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets
Outline:
- Historical Development of the Banking System (American Banking System)
- Financial Innovation and the Growth of the Shadow Banking System
- Structure off the US Commercial Banking Industry
- Bank Consolidation and Nationwide Banking
- Separation of the Banking and other Financial Service Industries (Glass-Steagall Act)
- Thrift Industry: Regulation and Structure
- International Banking
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. ▪ Human beings have been around for only
the past 2 M I L L I O N Y E AR S .
MANKIND: 0.043% of Earth’s history.
ORGANISMS: 15% of Earth's history
4.6 BILLION YEARS OLD
The Earth has evolved (changed)
throughout its history, and will
continue to evolve
3. ▪ Time Scale Difficulty
▪ 1 Million years seems way into the past,
however to geologists, it is a relatively
short period of time
4.6 BILLION YEARS OLD
Look at the processes and
structures that occur today and
interpret what must have happened
in the past.
4. ● We're part of it. Dust to Dust.
● Energy and Mineral resources that we
depend on for our lifestyle come from the
Earth.
● Geologic Hazards (e.g. earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes,
landslides) could affect us at any time
● Curiosity
5.
6.
7. ▪ During this process, light elements, like H, He, Li, B, and Be formed. From this point in
time, the universe began to expand and has been expanding ever since.
8. ▪ During this process, light elements, like H, He, Li, B, and Be formed. From this point in
time, the universe began to expand and has been expanding ever since.
▪ Gravity was pulling clumps of gas and heating them until the first star burst into life
9. ▪ During this process, light elements, like H, He, Li, B, and Be formed. From this point in
time, the universe began to expand and has been expanding ever since.
▪ Gravity was pulling clumps of gas and heating them until the first star burst into life
▪ Concentrations of gas and dust within the
universe eventually became galaxies
consisting of millions of stars.
▪ Within the larger stars, nuclear fusion
processes eventually created heavier
elements, like C, Si, Ca, Mg, K, and Fe.
10. 11 Billion years ago, galaxies merged to former a larger one,
including the milky way galaxy
Hundreds of billions of stars were formed,
however, our sun was not yet born.
11. Stars eventually collapse and explode
during an event called a
During a supernova, heavier elements,
from Fe to U, are formed.
12. Formation of the Solar System
Throughout galaxies clusters of gas attracted by
gravity start to rotate and accrete to form stars and
solar systems. For our solar system this occurred
about 4.6 billion years ago.
13. Rising star, The Sun
A ball at the center grows dense and hot,
eventually nuclear fusion reactions start and
the sun is born
14. Rings of gas and dust
orbiting around the sun
eventually condenses
into small particles.
These particles are
attracted to one
another and larger
bodies called
begin to form.
17. As the Earth formed, it was
incredibly hot from
1. Gravitational compaction
2. Impact energy converted
to heat
3. Heat from radioactive
decay
18. Earth became layered according to density.
1. The heaviest material like iron sank to the core
toward the center
2. Lighter rocky components remained on the
surface to form a crust
3. Gaseous material escapes from earth's interior,
producing primitive atmosphere or the Earth’s
magnetic field. Without it, Earth would be
blasted by harmful rays from the sun.
19. The Earth, chiefly molten
material, would have been
rounded by the force of gravity,
and would have resembled a ball
of lava floating in space, with high
amounts of volcanism.
20. A small planetoid, Theia, collided with
Earth at tremendous speed. Debris
forms a ring around the Earth.The
debris coalesces and forms the Moon.
After delivering a glancing blow to
Earth, gravity pulls this object into orbit.
It has remained in orbit ever since.
Giant Impact Hypothesis
21. T h e i a
P r o t o - E a r t h
Giant Impact The Earth
and Moon
Formation
of Moon
22. ▪ Earth was hit by asteroids, comets and foreign objects left, right and center.
▪ Some scientists believe that water originated from the bombardment of
comets at this time.
▪ There’s reason to believe that these collisions could have sparked the
chemical building blocks for life – DNA.
24. As the moon’s orbit drags
the Earth, it slowed Earth’s
rotation significantly from
6 hour days to 24 hours.
25. As the moon’s orbit drags
the Earth, it slowed Earth’s
rotation significantly from
6 hour days to 24 hours.
By having the moon in orbit, it also
stabilized the Earth from wobbling.
But most importantly, the collision of the moon
tilted Earth on its axis. And because the Earth is
tilted on its axis, Earth now had seasons.
26. Eventually, the climate on Earth became more stable in the Archean
Eon. Instead of a molten state, the Earth started to cool down. Water
vapor condensed to form oceans.
27. During this period, plate building blocks known as
cratons, which are essentially giant rock cores,
started to come together and rise to the surface.
1) VAALBARA: 3.6 to 2.8 BYA
▪ A supercontinent simply because it was all alone on our planet - any
explorers visiting Earth would have seen a single brownish dot against
all the blue.
▪ Today, Vaalbara is spread between two cratons - the Kaapvaal craton in
southern Africa and the Pilbara craton in northwestern Australia.
▪ Scientists suspect Vaalbara's existence because rocks ejected from
these cratons are some of the oldest in the world, and there are a
number of geological clues that the two cratons were once together.
29. 2) Ur: 3 BYA
▪ Ur was smaller than any of today's
continents, but it may well have spent many
millions of years as the only continent on our
planet, with nothing but some tiny islands to
keep it company.
▪ Ur lives on as part of India, Madagascar,
and Australia.
▪ This earthly formation is half a billion years
younger than Vaalbara but it is not believed
that Ur is not a continuation of Vaalbara nor
a successor
30. 3) KENORLAND: 2.7 BYA
▪ Kenorland formed after the merger of
several cratons (including Kaapval and
Pilbara)
▪ Kenorland likely existed around the equator,
and probably had about a hundred million
years as the Earth's dominant landmass.
Kenorland broke up around 2.3 billion years
ago, creating a massive spike in rainfall.
31. KENORLAND
This in turn caused a decrease of greenhouse gases
like carbon dioxide, which wasn't helped by the fact that
the Sun itself was weaker then than it is now, at only
about 85% its present power.
32. The entire planet spent millions
of years at below freezing
temperatures. It wouldn't be the
last time a breakup of a
supercontinent wreaked massive
environmental consequences.
33. 4) COLUMBIA: 1.8 - 1.5 BYA
▪ The first "proper" supercontinent was probably
Columbia
▪ It had a land mass of roughly 50 million square
kilometers - still quite a bit less than our
modern total of about 150 million, but still pretty
immense.
▪ From this point on, the picture stars to get a lot
clearer, as we reach the first supercontinent
that geologists are absolutely certain about.
34. 5) RODINIA: 1.1 BYA – 750 MYA
▪ Formed out of the long-dispersed remnants of
Columbia, along with additional cratons and
pieces of crust that had risen up in the
hundreds of millions of years
▪ No definite image on what Rodinia looked like,
but it was big, was probably located almost
entirely south of the equator, and began to
break apart roughly 550 million years ago..
35. This breakup was one of the most important and
cataclysmic events in our planet's history.
1) Created another Snowball Earth
2) Completely devoid of life, as all organisms
still lived in the oceans
3) Opened up new oceans and caused the sea
beds to rise, creating shallower seas that
offered the much-needed stepping stone for
animals and plants to make their way onto
land
4) Created massive volcanic explosions, which
likely shot rich nutrients from beneath the
Earth into the oceans.
36. 6) PANNOTIA: 650 – 540 MYA
▪ The formation of Pannotia was associated
with the break up of Rodinia into Proto-
Gondwana and Proto-Laurasia.
▪ Since the major part of the land in those days
was just near the poles, it is believed that the
glaciations reached its peak just about 600
mya.
▪ Two proto-oceans that surrounded the
supercontinent during the maximum
convergence :
1. Panthalassa ocean
2. Pan-African ocean
37. 6) PANNOTIA: 650 – 540 MYA
At the end of its existence, Pannotia
broke up into these continents:
Gondwana, Baltica, Siberia and
Laurentia. These continents will later
form the last supercontinent at this
moment.
38. 7) PANGAEA: 300 MYA
▪ Pangaea existed in the late Paleozoic and early
Mesozoic 300 mya.
▪ At that time, the supercontinent united all
modern continents into one.
▪ Many of today’s mountain ranges were formed
at the time of collision of continents and
lithospheric plates.
▪ The outlines of Pangaea are the most accurate
since the existence of the supercontinent is not
ancient as that of the previous ones.
39. 7) PANGAEA: 300 MY
At the end of its existence, Pangaea split
into Northern and Southern continents —
Laurasia and Gondwana.
Modern Eurasia and North America
formed from Laurasia and Africa, South
America, India, Australia and Antarctica
formed from Gondwana respectively.
40. 8) MODERN EARTH
Modern Earth is the result of many
complex geological and physical
processes.
The form that the Earth took in the
last periods of its existence has
enabled the existence of life on
Earth.
42. Processes that are operating during the
present are the same processes that
have operated in the past. i.e. the
present is the key to the past. If we look
at processes that occur today, we can
infer that the same processes operated
in the past.
43. September 30: 3.8 billion years ago: Photosynthesis
December 5: 0.8 billion years ago: Multi-cellular life
December 20: 0.45 billion years ago: Land Plants
December 25: 0.23 billion years ago: Dinosaurs
December 30: 0.065 billion years ago: Dinosaur Extinction
December 31, 12 AM: 40 million years ago: Dawn of the primates
● 14:24 hrs – Primitive Humans were born.
● 22:24 hrs – Stone tools were used by humans and fire was domesticated.
● 23:59 hrs, 48 sec – The Pyramids were built by the Egyptians.
● 23:59 hrs, 54 sec – Buddha was born and the Roman Empire was formed.
● 23:59 hrs, 55 sec – Christ was born, which marked the beginning of the
Roman calendar (0 AD).
● 23:59 hrs, 58 sec – Christopher Columbus discovered America
● 23:59 hrs, 59 sec– The world as we know it…