1. The document discusses the origin of life on Earth, beginning with abiogenesis, the process by which life arises from non-living matter.
2. It describes the early Earth environment and the formation of simple organic molecules, followed by more complex polymers that aggregated to form early protocells like coacervates and microspheres.
3. Key events in the development of life included the evolution of protocells into prokaryotic cells, then eukaryotic cells, and later the rise of multicellular organisms.
Slides about Cell Fate, Cell Potency, Differentiation, Specification, Modes of Specification, Role of Cytoplasm. Cell Interactions, Regulation in Development
This presentation covers the different types and mechanisms of regeneration ranging from hydra, salamanders and mammals. With more emphasis on physiology and genetics, this presentation explains epimorphosis and morphallaxis in different organisms. Hope you will get enough information from the slides about SCD. (This is a presentation that was done with the help of my classmate Bollam Haripriya, initially for her class presentation.)
Affinities of Dipnoi or lungfishes towards fishes and amphibians and their phylogenetic relationship and position with respect to Chordates diversification.
They are not the father of amphibians rather they are the uncle of amphibians.
They might have originated from Latimaria like ancestor.
Moreover it is now confirmed that Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and Labirynthodint amphibians are originated from the common ancestor.
Slides about Cell Fate, Cell Potency, Differentiation, Specification, Modes of Specification, Role of Cytoplasm. Cell Interactions, Regulation in Development
This presentation covers the different types and mechanisms of regeneration ranging from hydra, salamanders and mammals. With more emphasis on physiology and genetics, this presentation explains epimorphosis and morphallaxis in different organisms. Hope you will get enough information from the slides about SCD. (This is a presentation that was done with the help of my classmate Bollam Haripriya, initially for her class presentation.)
Affinities of Dipnoi or lungfishes towards fishes and amphibians and their phylogenetic relationship and position with respect to Chordates diversification.
They are not the father of amphibians rather they are the uncle of amphibians.
They might have originated from Latimaria like ancestor.
Moreover it is now confirmed that Dipnoi, Crossopterygii and Labirynthodint amphibians are originated from the common ancestor.
TO FOLLOW THESE SLIDES you will learn about the adaptive radiations involve in evolution .
yo will learn about the parallel adaptations and its types
speciation role in the evolution
factors
key innvations
to imrove the article involving examples
Founder events
Adaptive plasticity
process of adaptive radiation
Factors promote adaptive radiations
Factors underlying adaptive radiations
defined by 0.S OSBORN
ecological space
geological
climatological
Islands
examplrs: 1.Darwin Finches 2.Cichlid fish genome -adaptive evolution, Stanford scientists
3.Anolis Lizards
Factors promote adaptive radiations
1.Generally speaking, adaptive radiations occur when new, unoccupied ecological niches become accessible to a founder population.
This can happen after a mass extinction during which the previous occupiers of those niches died out.
t can also happen when a colonizing species arrives at an island. (For instance the ancestor of the honeycreepers in Hawaii, or of Darwin's "finches" in the Galapagos)
Honey creeper
Change feeding habitat
At least 56 species of Hawaiian honeycreepers known to have existed, although all but 18 of them are now extinct.
Lack of competition. When a species enters an adaptive zone, it is poorly equipped to compete with species that have become adapted to the same niche.
For example, mudskippers are fish that are making a living on land, but they are marine fish and they don't have to compete against frogs and salamanders, which are restricted to fresh water. That is why we don't see freshwater mudskippers.
process of adaptive radiation
Ecological Release Colonization of species.
Taxon cycle
Habitat varying as population expand- species dispersal.
Adaptive plasticity Phenotypic plasticity(behavior change)
Property of an individual or genotype that may be adaptive, maladaptive or neutral with regard to an individual's fitness.
The particular way an individual's (or genotype's) phenotype varies across environments can be described as a reaction norm (Single genotype-phenotypic expression)
Speciation in adaptive radiation Founder events
Fate maps are the bases for experimental embryology since they provide researchers with information on which portions of the embryo normally become which larval or adult structures.
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
1. DEFINITION
These are the membranes which do not form any part of
the embryo proper but performs various functions which
assist in the development of the embryo . These are
discarded at the time of hatching. These membranes
formed outside the embryo.
2. Types of Extra Embryonic Membranes
Yolk Sac
Amnion
Chorion
Allantois
3.Discussed Their
At Time of ORIGIN
It's FUNCTION
After HATCHING
4. AMNIOTIC CAVITY
............................END......................................................
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic organisms: characterization and comparison.pptxJaviFlaja
Structural, metabolic and evolutionary characterization and contrast of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
Comparison between cell reproduction processes, description of endosymbiosis.
TO FOLLOW THESE SLIDES you will learn about the adaptive radiations involve in evolution .
yo will learn about the parallel adaptations and its types
speciation role in the evolution
factors
key innvations
to imrove the article involving examples
Founder events
Adaptive plasticity
process of adaptive radiation
Factors promote adaptive radiations
Factors underlying adaptive radiations
defined by 0.S OSBORN
ecological space
geological
climatological
Islands
examplrs: 1.Darwin Finches 2.Cichlid fish genome -adaptive evolution, Stanford scientists
3.Anolis Lizards
Factors promote adaptive radiations
1.Generally speaking, adaptive radiations occur when new, unoccupied ecological niches become accessible to a founder population.
This can happen after a mass extinction during which the previous occupiers of those niches died out.
t can also happen when a colonizing species arrives at an island. (For instance the ancestor of the honeycreepers in Hawaii, or of Darwin's "finches" in the Galapagos)
Honey creeper
Change feeding habitat
At least 56 species of Hawaiian honeycreepers known to have existed, although all but 18 of them are now extinct.
Lack of competition. When a species enters an adaptive zone, it is poorly equipped to compete with species that have become adapted to the same niche.
For example, mudskippers are fish that are making a living on land, but they are marine fish and they don't have to compete against frogs and salamanders, which are restricted to fresh water. That is why we don't see freshwater mudskippers.
process of adaptive radiation
Ecological Release Colonization of species.
Taxon cycle
Habitat varying as population expand- species dispersal.
Adaptive plasticity Phenotypic plasticity(behavior change)
Property of an individual or genotype that may be adaptive, maladaptive or neutral with regard to an individual's fitness.
The particular way an individual's (or genotype's) phenotype varies across environments can be described as a reaction norm (Single genotype-phenotypic expression)
Speciation in adaptive radiation Founder events
Fate maps are the bases for experimental embryology since they provide researchers with information on which portions of the embryo normally become which larval or adult structures.
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
1. DEFINITION
These are the membranes which do not form any part of
the embryo proper but performs various functions which
assist in the development of the embryo . These are
discarded at the time of hatching. These membranes
formed outside the embryo.
2. Types of Extra Embryonic Membranes
Yolk Sac
Amnion
Chorion
Allantois
3.Discussed Their
At Time of ORIGIN
It's FUNCTION
After HATCHING
4. AMNIOTIC CAVITY
............................END......................................................
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic organisms: characterization and comparison.pptxJaviFlaja
Structural, metabolic and evolutionary characterization and contrast of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
Comparison between cell reproduction processes, description of endosymbiosis.
This is an introductory presentation about zoology. It gives you insight into what's in this field and how to tackle it.
The lecture can be accessed
https://youtu.be/qhXqXaTlMPk
Of all the living things, the human body in particular has been a source of curiosity by most of us. No doubt, the field of biology, anatomy and physiology provide us a clear venue to explore and understand it.
Harsh billore (cell the functional unit of life & cellular organisation)Harsh Billore
cell definition, its theory,size and shape , different types of cell, basic difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; basic difference between unicellular and multicellular organism ; difference between animal and plant cells.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
1. Chapter: Origin of life
(How life originated on earth and how they developed)
by Ratnodip Saha
Contact: ratnodeep2016@duck.com
2. Contents:
1. What is life? What is life cycle?
2. Abiogenesis or Origin of life: chemogeny & biogeny
3. Steps of Abiogenesis
4. What is Hot dilute soup theory?
5. Protocells: coacervates & microspheres
6. What is evolution?
7. What is variation?
8. Differences between variation and Mutation
3. What is Life?
Life can be defined as a distinctive characteristic of a living organism from dead
organism or non-living thing, which can be specifically distinguished by the
capacity to grow, metabolize, respond (to stimuli), adapt, and reproduce.
Life cycle: Life cycle is the series of changes that the individuals of a species
undergo as they pass from the beginning of a given developmental stage
(generally an embryo) to the inception of that same developmental stage in a
subsequent generation.
4. Life cycle of human
The stages of human life cycle or
development include pre-birth, birth, early
childhood, middle childhood, late
childhood, adolescence, early adulthood,
midlife, mature adulthood, late adulthood,
and death.
5. Abiogenesis or Origin of life:
In biology, abiogenesis or the origin of life is the natural process by which life
has developed from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds.
Abiogenesis consists of two phases:
1. Chemical evolution (chemogeny): Formation of complex organic molecules
from simpler inorganic molecules through chemical reactions in the oceans
during the early stages of the Earth; first step in the development.
2. Organic evolution (biogeny): Formation of protocell and subsequent
developments towards modern eukaryotic cell.
6. Steps of Origin of life:
CHEMOGENY
1. Presence of free atoms in environment: free atoms were present in the
environment. Like hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen etc.
2. Formation of simple inorganic molecules: Simple inorganic molecules were
formed from the free atoms. Like H2
O, NH3
etc. [These happened in prebiotic
oceans, i.e. hot dilute soup theory]
3. Formation of complex (monomer) organic molecules: Then complex organic
molecules (monomers) were formed. Like simple sugar, amino acids etc.
4. Formation of organic polymers: From the monomers, complex polymers of
organic molecules were formed. Like polysaccharides from simple sugar, proteins
from amino acids etc.
7. Steps of Origin of life:
BIOGENY
1. Formation of protocells: Complex organic polymers aggregated together to
form the earliest forms of cells. [Formation of coacervates or microspheres]
2. Evolution of protocells to Prokaryotic cells: Protocells were upgraded to
form prokaryotic cells (having no true nucleus and any membrane bound
organellea), the earliest form of living cells.
3. Formation of Eukaryotic cells: With the help of evolution, prokaryotic cells
evolved to advanced eukaryotic cells.
4. Rise of multicellular organisms: From the unicellular eukaryotic cells,
advanced multicellular organisms originated.
8. Hot dilute soup
The theory of Hot dilute soup or Primordial soup was proposed by Haldane to
describe the prebiotic (before life formation) oceans, where organic biomolecules
were formed from simplest inorganic compounds by the combination of carbon
dioxide, ammonia and ultraviolet radiation.
Oparin and Haldane thought that with the mix of gases in the atmosphere and the
energy from lightning strikes, amino acids could spontaneously form in the
oceans. This idea is now known as primordial soup.
9. Protocells or Protobionts:
Protocells or protobionts are self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical
collection of lipids. Researchers assume that modern living cells were initially
originated from protocells.
According to Oparin-Haldane theory, simple molecules polymerized into complex
molecules and then these complex molecules formed aggregates, which were
known as coacervates and microspheres (two theories behind protocells).
Coacervates and microspheres are cell-like structures, and they resemble living
cells. But, they do not show all the properties of cells. They form spontaneously in
certain liquids. They are surrounded by a membrane.
10. Coacervate:
Coacervates are membrane-bound vesicles like microscopic structures, formed by
the aggregation of complex organic compounds mainly lipid compounds.
They resemble living cells. However, they do not contain heredity materials (like
DNA/RNA). Coacervates surround by a membrane-like a boundary. They are able
to take substances from their surroundings and grow in size. Once grow into a
certain limit, they divide and form new coacervates.
The word ‘coacervate’ was introduced by Oparin and according to him,
coacervate is a structure which consists of a collection of organic molecules
surrounded by a film of water molecules. He said coacervates are kind of
protocells.
11. Microsphere:
Microspheres are tiny droplet like structure made from the aggregation of organic
molecules especially from proteinoids (or amino acid molecules).
The term ‘Microsphere’ was introduced by Sidney Fox. According to him, the
microsphere is a non-living collection of organic macromolecules with double
layered (non-lipid) outer boundary.
13. Coacervates vs Microspheres:
The key difference between
Coacervates and Microspheres is
that the coacervates have a single
membrane while the microspheres
have double membranes.
Furthermore, the coacervates are
aggregates of lipids while the
microspheres are aggregates of
proteinoids.
15. What is Evolution?
Biological evolution is change in the
heritable characteristics of a
population over succeeding
generations, which and relies on the
process of natural selection.
Fig: Evolution
of horse
16. What is variation?
Variation refers to the differences or deviations from the recognized norm or
standard. It may be a modification in structure, form or function in an organism,
deviating from other organisms of the same species or group.
In genetics, variation refers to an individual that possesses characteristics different
from the others of the same kind. Genetic variation usually arises as a mutation
in a gene that encodes a protein or an RNA.
Example: A person's skin color, hair color, dimples, freckles, and blood type are
all examples of genetic variations that can occur in a human population.
17. Differences between Variation and Mutation:
Mutation is the natural and permanent change, causing
changes in the DNA or genetic sequence in any living
organisms. These changes can be small or large, which
may affect the entire genes or chromosomes.
On the other hand variation or genetic variation is seen
in groups or population and is observed in genes as
well as in alleles. It can be due to environmental factors
and intensify the process of natural selections. Variation
may bring evolutionary changes.