Organisation Of Cns
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The document discusses the organization and structure of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord. It then discusses various structures that provide protection and support to the central nervous system like the skull, spinal column, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier. The document goes on to describe specific regions and structures within the brain in detail.
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The document discusses the ascending tracts and posterior column pathway in the spinal cord. It provides details on:
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2) Fibers from the tracts synapse in the medulla and cross over before ascending to the thalamus and primary sensory cortex.
3) The posterior column pathway conveys proprioception, vibration, discriminative touch, weight discrimination and stereognosis signals up the spinal cord within the posterior column tracts.
Spinal cord
The document summarizes key aspects of the spinal cord's anatomy and function. It describes the spinal cord's location, shape, length, coverings, enlargements, internal structure including grey and white matter, segments, and tracts. It also outlines some of the spinal cord's major functions, including electrochemical communication, enabling walking through coordinated muscle contractions, and facilitating reflexes through involuntary responses between the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
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Neurons are specialized cells that carry messages through the body via electrochemical processes. They have extensions called dendrites that receive information and axons that carry information to other neurons or structures. At the junction between neurons called the synapse, chemicals called neurotransmitters relay messages. Neurons have irregular shapes and specialized structures that allow them to communicate rapidly and coordinate the body's thinking and behavior. Support cells called glia aid neurons by insulating axons, removing waste, and regulating blood flow in the brain.
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The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS and controls involuntary body functions. It has two branches - the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic system activates the fight or flight response while the parasympathetic system activates the rest and digest response. Both systems involve a two-neuron chain with a preganglionic neuron originating in the CNS and a postganglionic neuron that releases neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
Reticular formation
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The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion. It has two divisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
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1) The medial lemniscus system carries sensations for fine touch, pressure, and vibration from receptors through the dorsal roots and fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus tracts in the spinal cord.
2) Fibers from the tracts synapse in the medulla and cross over before ascending to the thalamus and primary sensory cortex.
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The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS and controls involuntary body functions. It has two branches - the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic system activates the fight or flight response while the parasympathetic system activates the rest and digest response. Both systems involve a two-neuron chain with a preganglionic neuron originating in the CNS and a postganglionic neuron that releases neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
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The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion. It has two divisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
The sympathetic system prepares the body for "fight or flight" through actions like increasing heart rate. It uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter. The parasympathetic system allows the body to "rest and digest" through actions like slowing the heart rate. It uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
Both systems involve two neurons - a preganglionic neuron from the CNS and a postganglionic neuron. They differ in the lengths of their neurons and the locations of their cell bodies. Together they work to maintain homeostasis through complementary
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Spinal cord
The spinal cord extends from the skull to the lumbar vertebrae and contains gray matter in an H-shaped arrangement. It provides bidirectional communication between the brain and body via ascending and descending tracts. The spinal cord is protected within vertebrae and surrounded by meninges including the dura, arachnoid, and pia mater.
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The document provides an overview of neurophysiology and the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes the development of the central nervous system from the neural tube, and defines the major subdivisions of the brain and spinal cord. It also discusses the types of neurons and glial cells, their roles, and the protective mechanisms of the central nervous system like the meninges and blood-brain barrier.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary body functions like heart rate, respiration, digestion and more. It has two divisions:
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" through responses like increased heart rate and dilated pupils. It uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter.
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body "rest and digest" with functions like digestion, salivation and pupil constriction. It uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
Together these two divisions work to maintain homeostasis and control internal organs through a two-neuron pathway, with cell bodies located in the spinal cord or brainstem and ganglia between pre- and postganglionic neurons.
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The document provides an overview of cerebrum anatomy. It discusses that the cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres. It describes the lobes of the cerebrum including the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. It also discusses the internal structures of the cerebrum including the cerebral cortex, ventricles, basal ganglia, and white matter tracts.
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The document provides information about the autonomic nervous system (ANS). It describes the ANS as having two main divisions - the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses, while the parasympathetic system allows for "rest and digest" functions. Key differences between the two divisions are described, including their origins in the spinal cord/brain and targets in the body. The pathways of preganglionic and postganglionic neurons, as well as autonomic ganglia, are outlined. Neurotransmitters and receptors of each division are also detailed.
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This is the first lecture in neuroanatomy presented and taught by Ahmed Eljack to second level medical students at Alneelain University.
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The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is protected by three layers of tissue called meninges and surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. It contains four interconnected ventricles that produce cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain contains the cerebrum and limbic system. The cerebrum is made up of grey matter and white matter and is involved in voluntary movement and complex functions. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and body and contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
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The nervous system has two main parts - the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord, and acts as the main control center. The brain controls all body functions and processes sensory information. The spinal cord relays messages between the brain and body and coordinates reflexes. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body using cranial and spinal nerves. It links the CNS to sensory receptors and muscles throughout the body.
Nerve & Action potential
This document discusses the generation and propagation of action potentials in neurons. It notes that neurons respond to stimuli by producing either local, non-propagated potentials or propagated action potentials. Action potentials are generated when voltage-gated sodium channels open in response to depolarization, allowing sodium ions to rush in and briefly reverse the membrane potential. This wave of depolarization then propagates down the axon by electrotonic conduction. The document outlines the changes in membrane permeability and potential during an action potential and describes how action potentials conduct in either direction along the axon.
Anatomy of midbrain
The brain stem is located between the cerebrum and spinal cord, and consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain connects the forebrain to the pons and cerebellum. It contains important centers for visual and auditory reflexes, and gives rise to the trochlear nerve. Key structures in the midbrain include the superior and inferior colliculi, oculomotor nucleus, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. The midbrain serves to relay motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and forebrain.
Central nervous system
The document discusses the central nervous system. It begins by describing the general design of the nervous system, noting that the CNS contains over 100 billion neurons and synapses allow signals to pass in a forward direction. It then discusses the divisions of the nervous system, describing the central nervous system as consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord functions to transmit sensory and motor signals and mediate reflexes. The document goes on to describe the structure and tracts of the spinal cord, as well as the sensory and motor parts of the nervous system. It discusses the different levels of function in the CNS including the spinal cord, lower brain, and higher brain levels. The document concludes by describing CNS synapses and various types
introduction to central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of, all parts of the bodies
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The basal ganglia consist of several structures including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. They are located within the cerebral hemispheres and are involved in motor control and cognition. Two main circuits exist - the putamen circuit for executing movements and the caudate circuit for cognitive motor control. Diseases that impact the basal ganglia like Parkinson's and Huntington's result from dysfunction of neurotransmitter pathways and can cause both hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movement disorders. Common treatments involve replacing dopamine or modifying basal ganglia circuitry.
Cerebellum parts and functions
The cerebellum is located behind the brain stem and contains half of the brain's neurons. It consists of a central vermis and two lateral lobes. The cerebellum is divided into three lobes - anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular. It receives input and sends output via three peduncles. The cerebellum coordinates movement, balance, and posture through feedforward processing in its modular circuitry and plays a role in motor learning. Damage impairs coordination, balance, and movement control.
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This document discusses the physiology of posture, movement, and equilibrium. It covers 3 main points:
1. The neural control of posture and movement involves pathways from the cortex, brainstem, and cerebellum that converge on spinal motor neurons. The pyramidal system controls voluntary movement while the extrapyramidal system adjusts posture.
2. Lesions to different parts of the motor control pathways produce distinct deficits, such as loss of fine motor skills from damage to the lateral corticospinal tract. Transections of the spinal cord and brainstem in animals produce characteristic reflexes and rigidity.
3. The brainstem, cerebellum, and vestibular systems work together to maintain equilibrium and
Central nervous system
The meninges are the three connective tissue layers that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord. They include the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the thick outer layer, arachnoid mater is the middle layer, and pia mater is the thin inner layer that closely adheres to the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid is located between the arachnoid and pia maters. The spinal cord runs from the brainstem down the spinal column and is also surrounded and protected by the meninges. It has gray matter containing nerve cell bodies in the center and white matter containing nerve fibers surrounding it. The spinal cord transmits signals
CNS Physiology.pptx
CNS Introduction, Neurons, Type of Neurons and functions, Neuroglia and types, Receptors and their types, Synapse, Neurotransmitters and their functions
Anatomy of brainstem
The brainstem is located between the cerebrum and spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain connects the pons and cerebrum and contains the superior and inferior colliculi. The pons connects to the cerebellum via peduncles and contains pontine nuclei and cranial nerve nuclei. The medulla oblongata connects to the spinal cord and contains cranial nerve nuclei, the inferior olives, and tracts such as the gracile and cuneate fasciculi.
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This document summarizes various vascular diseases of the central nervous system. It describes stroke as a sudden focal neurological deficit that can vary from mild to severe paralysis. CT and MRI are used to detect strokes, which most commonly involve the internal carotid artery circulation. Treatment includes rest, medications, anticoagulants, and thrombolytic agents. Transient ischemic attacks are briefly described as temporary focal neurological deficits lasting less than 24 hours that can be caused by emboli or arterial stenosis. Intraparenchymal hemorrhages are most often caused by hypertension and head trauma and appear on imaging as well-defined blood collections that can displace brain tissue. Subarachnoid hemorrhages are frequently caused by ruptured berry aneurysms
Central Nervous System.ppt
The nervous system consists of neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons transmit nerve impulses through electrical and chemical signals. The neuron has a cell body, dendrites which receive signals, and an axon which transmits signals. Schwann cells wrap around axons and form myelin sheaths to insulate axons. Myelin allows faster impulse transmission. The nervous system regulates sensation, movement, and organ function through sensory, motor and interneurons. Nerve impulses rely on ion exchange and travel through the nervous system via pathways and reflex arcs.
Nervous system
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes nerves. The brain is divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum controls thought and movement. It is divided into four lobes with different functions. The cerebellum aids in movement coordination. The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord. The spinal cord runs through the vertebrae and gives rise to spinal nerves. Nerves transmit signals between the CNS and body.
Nervous system notes
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its main functions and classifications. It describes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. It also discusses the structure and function of neurons, how impulses are transmitted, and the main regions and components of the brain and spinal cord.
Central Nervous System 1
The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system. It has two principal parts: the central nervous system (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising nerves. The CNS integrates sensory input and dictates motor responses, while the PNS carries signals between the CNS and sensory receptors and effector organs. Neurons are the basic functional units and transmit signals via electrical impulses. Neuroglia provide support and insulation for neurons.
Nervous System
The nervous system is comprised of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves connecting to organs and tissues). The central nervous system receives sensory information and coordinates motor responses through neurons that communicate via electrical and chemical signals. There are three types of neurons - sensory, motor and interneurons. The peripheral nervous system has two divisions - somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary control like digestion).
The Nervous System Parts And Functions
The document discusses the main components and functions of the human nervous system. It explains that the nervous system is comprised of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The brain contains three main parts - the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum controls voluntary actions and stores data. The cerebellum coordinates movements and controls balance. The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls neurological functions. The spinal cord and nerves transmit signals between the brain, spinal cord, and organs throughout the body.
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The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, which coordinate incoming and outgoing information. The PNS connects the CNS to organs and sensory receptors, carrying signals to and from the CNS. Neurons are the basic functional units and come in sensory, motor, and interneuron types that differ in their dendrite and axon structures. Sensory neurons carry signals to the CNS while motor neurons carry signals away, and interneurons connect signals within the CNS.
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The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. It has two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and controls sensory input, integration of information, and motor output. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body through nerves and allows for voluntary control of muscles and glands as well as involuntary reflexes. The nervous system monitors both internal and external changes through sensory receptors and responds through integration and motor functions to control the body.
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This document provides an overview of general physiology and cell physiology concepts. It discusses homeostasis and how the body maintains stable internal conditions through negative feedback loops. Key organelles like the mitochondria, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and nucleus are described. The structure and function of the plasma membrane, including the fluid mosaic model, transport proteins, and passive transport mechanisms like diffusion and facilitated diffusion are also summarized.
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Nervous system is composed of CNS & PNS . The nervous system is made up of nervous tissues formed by neuron and neuroglia. This is mechanical coordination of the human body .
The cell and cell organelles
The document provides an introduction to biochemistry by Dr. V.P. Acharya. It discusses the pioneers of Indian and Western medicine such as Charaka, Sushruta, and Hippocrates. It then summarizes the evolution of biochemistry from the 19th century to modern times. The rest of the document describes the molecular and functional organization of the cell, including the structure and functions of organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, and cytoskeleton.
Insect nervious system and impulse transmission_S.Srinivasnaik_RAD21-25.ppt
Insect nervious system and impulse transmission_S.Srinivasnaik_RAD21-25.pptAsst Prof SSNAIK ENTO PJTSAU
The document summarizes the insect nervous system. It describes how the nervous system is responsible for coordinating the insect's behavior through axonic and synaptic conduction between neurons. The central nervous system contains a brain and ventral nerve cord with ganglia. Sensory neurons detect stimuli and motor neurons transmit signals to muscles. Neurotransmitters and insecticides can act on different targets in the synaptic cleft to disrupt signaling. In summary, the insect nervous system allows for coordinated behavior through transmission of electrical impulses between neurons in the central nervous system and to muscles.Nervous system
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, and receives and processes sensory information. The PNS transmits signals between the CNS and body. Within the nervous system are neurons, which transmit signals, and glial cells, which support neurons. Neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals to coordinate bodily functions.
Servosystem/ oral surgery courses
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Servosystem/ oral surgery courses
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Servo system in orthodontics
The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Lateral line system
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
Cells and their_organelles
The document discusses the structures and functions of organelles within plant and animal cells. It describes key organelles such as the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and others. Each organelle has a specific function, such as the mitochondria which produces ATP and the chloroplasts which facilitate photosynthesis. The organelles work together to carry out essential functions required for the cell to survive.
4 q periodic exam reviewer (answers to d. t. crisologo's guide questions)
The document provides information about the skeletal, nervous, sensory, endocrine, and plant hormone systems. It defines key terms like hydrostatic, exo- and endoskeletons. It describes the main functions of the nervous system and roles of neurons and glia. It contrasts the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. It enumerates parts of the vertebrate brain and central nervous system. It defines tropisms and describes the roles of major plant hormones. Finally, it relates the functions of the endocrine and nervous systems and defines hormones.
A&P I Lab Exam 1
The document contains definitions and descriptions of various body cavities and organs within the human body. It also includes diagrams and descriptions of microscope parts, animal and plant cell structures, osmosis and diffusion concepts, and different single-celled organisms including their modes of locomotion.
Introduction to Biochemistry, cell and cell organelles
The document provides an introduction to biochemistry by Dr. V.P. Acharya. It discusses the pioneers of Indian and Western medicine such as Charaka, Sushruta, and Hippocrates. It then covers the evolution of biochemistry from the 19th century to modern times. Key figures discussed include Carl Neuberg, the "Father of Biochemistry", and Friedrich Wohler who ended the theory of vitalism. The document concludes by outlining the basic biomolecules and providing an overview of the cell, its organelles, and their biochemical functions.
Limbic system brain
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on the edge of the brainstem that are involved in emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. It includes structures like the hippocampus, amygdala, septum, cingulate gyrus, and others. The hippocampus plays a key role in forming new declarative memories and is susceptible to epileptic activity due to its low seizure threshold. Damage to the hippocampus can cause anterograde amnesia by disrupting the transfer of memories from short-term to long-term storage. The cingulate cortex is connected to structures like the thalamus, striatum, and parahippocampal gyrus and is
Animal Cell Structure
Here are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
Prokaryotic Cells:
- Lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA is located in the nucleoid region of the cell.
- Typically unicellular (single-celled) organisms like bacteria.
- Smaller in size, usually between 1-10 micrometers.
- Have simpler internal structures like ribosomes, cell membrane, and cell wall.
Eukaryotic Cells:
- Contain a nucleus enclosed within a nuclear membrane, as well as other membrane-bound organelles like the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.
-
Urino genitial system of vertebrates
The document discusses the urinogenital system in vertebrates. It begins by defining the urinogenital system and its components, which include the kidneys, urinary ducts, gonads, and genital ducts. It then describes the evolution and development of the kidney structures in vertebrates, from the primitive pronephros to the more advanced metanephros. Key points include that the kidney evolves from the intermediate mesoderm and progresses through pronephric, mesonephric, and metanephric stages. The metanephros is the definitive kidney structure in amniotes. The document also discusses kidney structure and blood supply in different vertebrate groups.
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NERVOUS SYSTEM// Brain & Spinal cord //CRANIAL NERVES//Neuron
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Insect nervious system and impulse transmission_S.Srinivasnaik_RAD21-25.ppt
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4 q periodic exam reviewer (answers to d. t. crisologo's guide questions)
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Introduction to Biochemistry, cell and cell organelles
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The umbilical cord
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and measures approximately 50 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter at term. It contains one vein that carries oxygenated blood to the fetus and two arteries that carry deoxygenated blood away. The cord inserts into the placenta near its center in most cases. Abnormalities can include abnormal insertion points, short or long length, knots, torsion, hematoma, or having a single umbilical artery instead of two.
The placenta
The placenta develops from fetal and maternal tissues to function as the respiratory, nutritive, excretory, barrier and endocrine organ of pregnancy. It transfers oxygen, nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus. The placenta can develop abnormalities in its shape, size, position or adhesion to the uterine wall which may cause complications like preterm birth or hemorrhage. Placental lesions like infarcts may also occur due to conditions like hypertension.
The foetal membranes
The document discusses the fetal membranes, which include the chorion and amnion. The chorion is the outer membrane that is attached to the placenta and uterine wall. The amnion lines the chorion and encloses the fetus and amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid provides protection and nutrition for the fetus, and aids in temperature regulation and movement. It is composed primarily of water, carbohydrates, proteins and minerals. The amniotic fluid circulates continuously, with production from the fetal membranes, fetal urine and transudation from maternal and fetal blood.
Physiology of reproduction
The document summarizes the key stages in human reproduction from fertilization through early pregnancy development. It describes how sperm mature and are capacitated in the female reproductive tract. Upon ovulation, sperm meet and fertilize the ovum in the fallopian tubes. The zygote then undergoes cell division and develops into a blastocyst that implants in the uterus. The trophoblast cells of the blastocyst invade the uterine lining and develop into a placenta to exchange nutrients and waste with the mother's blood. Major developmental milestones in early pregnancy include chorion, amnion and decidua formation.
Minor complaints during pregnancy
The document discusses several minor complaints that may occur during pregnancy, including gingivitis, ptyalism, heartburn, constipation, hemorrhoids, varicosities, dyspnea, urinary symptoms, leucorrhea, leg cramps, paraethesia, and backache. For each complaint, the causes and recommended treatments are provided.
Diagnosis of pregnancy
This document discusses the diagnosis of pregnancy over three trimesters. In the first trimester, common symptoms include missed periods, morning sickness, frequent urination, and breast changes. Signs include enlarged, soft breasts and uterus, and a softer, purplish cervix. Pregnancy tests detect human chorionic gonadotropin in urine or blood. Ultrasounds can visualize the gestational sac after 4-5 weeks. In the second trimester, symptoms decrease while the abdomen enlarges and fetal movement is felt. Signs include skin changes and palpable fetal parts. The third trimester confirms pregnancy through palpation of fetal parts and auscultation of the fetal heart.
Antenatal care
Antenatal care involves regular checkups during pregnancy to monitor the health of the mother and baby. Checkups include exams, tests, and education on nutrition, exercise, hygiene, warning signs and avoiding risks. The goals are to prevent or treat complications, detect issues, and ensure healthy development. Women receive more frequent exams as their due date approaches, and are instructed on a nutritious diet, moderate exercise, adequate rest, hygienic practices, and when to seek medical help if problems arise.
Postpartum mood disorders
The document discusses postpartum mood disorders, including prevalence, risk factors, screening tools, diagnosis, and treatment options. It notes that postpartum mood disorders range from mild and temporary postpartum blues to more severe postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. Screening tools like the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale can help identify at-risk women. Treatment involves psychosocial therapies and may include antidepressant medication depending on severity. A multidisciplinary approach is important to address biological, psychological and social factors.
Normal and abnormal puerperium
Uterine fibroids are benign smooth muscle tumors that develop in the uterus. They are the most common solid pelvic tumors, affecting 20-25% of women during their reproductive years. Fibroids can vary in size and location, and may cause heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure or pain. Treatment options include observation, medical therapy to reduce estrogen levels, or surgical removal of fibroids.
Version
Version refers to changing the fetal lie or position in the uterus. There are three main types: external cephalic version, internal podalic version, and bipolar podalic version. External cephalic version involves manipulating the fetus externally to convert a breech presentation to head-first. Internal podalic version is performed under anesthesia when the cervix is fully dilated to grasp the fetus's feet and convert a transverse lie to breech. Bipolar podalic version uses both internal and external manipulation through a partially dilated cervix for special circumstances. Complications can include fetal distress, premature separation of the placenta, and maternal hemorrhage.
Vacuum extraction (ventouse)
Vacuum extraction is a method to assist in childbirth using suction from a cup placed on the baby's head to help with traction during contractions. There are different types of cups including metal, soft, and bird's cups. Vacuum extraction is indicated when forceps cannot be used and has advantages over forceps like less need for anesthesia and less compression force applied. Complications can include maternal lacerations and cervical injuries or fetal issues like cephalhematomas and scalp lacerations.
Symphysiotomy
Symphysiotomy is a surgical procedure that divides the symphysis pubis bone to widen the pelvis during childbirth. It is indicated when cephalopelvic disproportion makes vaginal delivery difficult or dangerous but cesarean section is not available or advised. The procedure involves making a small incision above the pubic bone and gradually separating the joint using a scalpel. Complications can include bleeding, injury to nearby organs, infection, and long-term issues like incontinence or an unstable pelvis.
Forceps delivery
This document discusses obstetric forceps, which are metal instruments used to extract a baby's head during delivery. It describes different types of forceps and their proper application techniques. Forceps are indicated for prolonged second stage of labor, maternal distress, or fetal distress. Correct application involves inserting one blade along each side of the baby's head. Potential complications include laceration, hemorrhage, nerve injury, or problems for the baby such as skull fractures. Failure to deliver with forceps may require removal and assessment to determine if cesarean section is needed.
Episiotomy
This document discusses episiotomy, which is an incision made in the perineum during childbirth to widen the vaginal opening. It can help prevent tearing and complications. The two main types are median and mediolateral episiotomies. Median episiotomies involve a midline incision while mediolateral incisions extend laterally towards the ischial tuberosity. Episiotomies are usually performed when the vaginal opening is distended during crowning to prevent stretching injuries. They are sutured closed after delivery.
Caesarean section
The document discusses Caesarean section, including indications, types, procedure, complications, and mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies. A Caesarean section is a surgical procedure to deliver one or more babies through incisions in the abdomen and uterus. The rate of Caesarean sections has increased from 5% in 1970 to 25% in 1990 due to factors such as abandoning difficult procedures in favor of C-sections and increased use for breech births. Complications can include hemorrhage, infections, and injuries to the mother or baby.
Normal labour
Normal labour involves the spontaneous expulsion of a single, mature fetus through the birth canal within 3-18 hours without complications. It occurs when hormonal and mechanical factors cause the cervix to efface and dilate in stages from 3cm to full 10cm dilation. Labour proceeds through four stages: 1) cervical dilation, 2) expulsion of the fetus, 3) expulsion of the placenta, and 4) recovery. The fetus descends through the birth canal with increased flexion to facilitate delivery of the head.
Anatomy of the foetal skull
The fetal skull consists of three parts: the vault, face, and base. The vault is made up of the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones which are separated by sutures. The face extends from the chin to the nose. Fontanelles are soft spots located where sutures meet which are important for assessing fetal position and flexion. The skull has various longitudinal and transverse diameters used to determine which will engage and pass through the birth canal during delivery.
Anatomy of the female pelvis
The female pelvis is divided into the false pelvis and true pelvis. The true pelvis is further divided into the pelvic inlet, cavity, and outlet. The document describes the boundaries and diameters of each region including the anatomical transverse diameter of 13cm at the inlet. It also discusses the pelvic planes and axes, and the Caldwell-Moloy classification of pelvic types including the gynaecoid, anthropoid, android, and platypelloid pelvis.
Active management of normal labour
This document outlines the active management of normal labour in 4 stages: antenatal preparation, first stage (history, exam, procedures), second stage (delivery of baby), third stage (delivery of placenta), and fourth stage (postpartum care of mother and baby). The goal is a healthy delivery with minimal effects. Key procedures include monitoring contractions/fetal heart with a partogram, positioning, nutrition, analgesia, perineal support, and immediate newborn care.
Thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy
Thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy can cause complications like abortion and preterm labour. Clinical features include weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, and fast heart rate. It is treated with antithyroid drugs like propylthiouracil or carbimazole. Epilepsy in pregnancy commonly presents as grand mal seizures, which are treated with phenobarbitone or phenytoin along with folic acid. Rhesus isoimmunization occurs when an Rh-negative mother develops antibodies against Rh-positive blood from her baby. It can be prevented by giving the mother anti-D immunoglobulin after delivery or pregnancy events involving blood transfer from baby to mother. Affected babies may require monitoring, phot
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Organisation Of Cns
- 1. ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN SPINAL CORD CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AFFERENT NERVES EFFERENT NERVES EXTERO- RECEPTORS INTERO- RECEPTORS SOMATIC AUTONOMIC EFFECTOR ORGANS SKELETAL MUSCLES SMOOTH AND CARDIAC MUSCLES AND GLANDS www.freelivedoctor.com
- 22. CORTICAL AREAS INVOVED IN MOTOR CONTROL www.freelivedoctor.com
- 24. SOMATOTOPIC ORGANIZATION OF THE MOTOR CORTEX www.freelivedoctor.com
- 26. SEGMENTAL STRUCTURE OF SPINAL NERVES DERMATOMES www.freelivedoctor.com
- 27. SPINAL CORD DORSAL HORN GREY MATTER DORSAL VENTRAL SPINAL NERVE DORSAL ROOT GANGLION VENTRAL HORN WHITE MATTER LATERAL www.freelivedoctor.com
- 28. THE SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX www.freelivedoctor.com
- 29. SOMATOTOPIC ORGANIZATION OF THE SENSORY CORTEX www.freelivedoctor.com
- 31. HUNGER LACK OF FOOD REDUCED AVAILABILITY OF GLUCOSE CONTRACTIONS OF EMPTY STOMACH LOW TRIGLYCERIDE LEVELS IN FAT CELLS GLUCOSE RECEPTORS IN HYPOTHALAMUS MECHANO- RECEPTORS IN STOMACH PANCREAS HUNGER LONG TERM SHORT TERM www.freelivedoctor.com
- 32. THIRST WATER DEFICIENCY OSMORECEPTORS IN SUPRAOPTIC AND SUPRA- VENTRICULAR NUCLEI OF HYPOTHALAMUS THIRST ADH SERETION BY PITUITARY WATER RETENTION BY KIDNEY www.freelivedoctor.com
- 35. LOCALIZATION OF LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS COMPREHENSION www.freelivedoctor.com
- 39. ANATOMY OF THE CEREBELLUM Floculonodular Lobe Lateral Zone Intermediate Zone www.freelivedoctor.com
- 41. SOMATIC SENSORY PROJECTIONS ONTO THE CEREBELLAR CORTEX www.freelivedoctor.com
- 42. THE BASAL GANGLIA www.freelivedoctor.com
- 44. FLEXOR WITHDRAWAL REFLEX STEPON TACK SENSORY SIGNAL TO SPINE VIA INTERNEURONS IPSILATERAL EXTENSORS INHIBITED IPSILATERAL FLEXORS CONTRACT-LEG LIFTS CONTRALATERAL EXTENSORS CONTRACT CONTRALATERAL FLEXORS INHIBITED- MAINTAIN BALANCE AND SUPPORT WEIGHT www.freelivedoctor.com