Introduction
Working principle
Classification
Construction and working
Different types of an optical scope
Process capabilities and analysis
Testing
Process parameters
Components and machine structure
Confocal laser scanning microscopy
Microscopic
Advantages
Applications
Advancement in CMM
Machine characteristics
Process parameters of CMM
Animation video
Research papers
Bar graphs and tables
Conclusion
References
Laser interferometry or ESPI, also known as computer-aided speckle pattern interferometry (CASPI), television holography, and video holography, is the electronic processing of speckle patterns produced by a laser interferometer consisting of two laser beams (using a beam splitter) generated from the same laser source.
Laser interferometry or ESPI, also known as computer-aided speckle pattern interferometry (CASPI), television holography, and video holography, is the electronic processing of speckle patterns produced by a laser interferometer consisting of two laser beams (using a beam splitter) generated from the same laser source.
This presentation is all about Microscope .... The miracle instrument which revolutionised the study of microbiology and Biological science . Be it Cell studies, molecule studies, pathogen studies, virology etc etc ..... All has become possible for this instrument. let us understand the functioning , applications of this instrument .
microscope (1).pdf this is a project for for botany majorarpitakhairwar123
Name - Arpita khairwar
Class - B.sc 1st year
Subject - Botany Major
College - Govt. Jayashankar Trivedi College Balaghat
Guided by - Dr. Pratima bisen
Submitted by - Arpita khairwar
While this ppt given by Dr pratima mam this ppt is a educational institution. My ppt is about microscope
The flow of baseline estimation using a single omnidirectional cameraTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Baseline is a distance between two cameras, but we cannot get information from a single camera. Baseline is one of the important parameters to find the depth of objects in stereo image triangulation. The flow of baseline is produced by moving the camera in horizontal axis from its original location. Using baseline estimation, we can determined the depth of an object by using only an omnidirectional camera. This research focus on determining the flow of baseline before calculating the disparity map. To estimate the flow and to tracking the object, we use three and four points in the surface of an object from two different data (panoramic image) that were already chosen. By moving the camera horizontally, we get the tracks of them. The obtained tracks are visually similar. Each track represent the coordinate of each tracking point. Two of four tracks have a graphical representation similar to second order polynomial.
Design And Development of Hybrid Solar Dryers For Domestic Applicationssangeetkhule
INTRODUCTION
COMMERCIAL ASPECT
LITERATURE REVIEW
OUTCOME OF LITERATURE REVIEW
METHODOLOGY
DESIGN
CAD MODEL & SIMULATION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Solar energy is a primary renewable energy source with the potential to meet
several challenges faced by humankind. Solar technologies convert sunlight into
electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or through mirrors that
concentrate solar radiation. There are two basic mechanisms involved in the drying
process of solar drying; are: The migration of moisture from the interior of the
substance to be dried, and the second is the evaporation of moisture from the surface to
the surrounding air. The solar drying system utilizes the solar energy to heat air and to
dry any food substance which is loaded, which is not only beneficial but also it reduces
wastage of agricultural products and helps in the preservation of agricultural products,
but it also makes transportation of such dried product quickly and promotes the health
and welfare of the people. So, the development of a hybrid solar-energy dryer using a
photovoltaic (PV) solar panel to power the heating element coil and charge the battery,
which had a storage energy system, was developed and constructed with readily
available materials market was proposed.
This report presents the basics of the solar dryer, and the Literature review
contains recent innovative techniques used for developments of different types like
direct, indirect, mixed-mode, and hybrid solar dryers are discussed from the duration of
the previous two to three decades. Also, a comprehensive report of the fundamental
principles governing the drying process with the classification of the practically realized
various designs and selection of solar dryers for drying agricultural and marine products
has been presented.
The dryer comprises a solar collector (air heater) with the baffles and a solar
drying chamber containing a rack of four net trays, both being assimilated together. The
air allowed in through the air inlet is heated up in the solar collector chamber andchannelled through the drying chamber, where it is utilized in drying (removing the
moisture content from the food substances or agricultural product loaded in it). Locally
materials were used for the construction are wood, glass, aluminium metal sheet, PV,
and net for the trays.
The hybrid solar dryer discussed in the papers in the literature review is a
prominent practical technology that can dry various crops under all weather conditions.
Temperatures in the drying cabinet can be expected to range between 40 to 70ºC.
Compared to traditional drying, the hybrid dryer produces a better quality product and
can reduce the drying time by up to 50 to 70 %.
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID SOLAR DRYER FOR DOMESTIC APPLICATIONSsangeetkhule
Introduction
Role of The Sun
Importance of Renewable Energy Sources
Solar Drying
Basics of Solar Energy
Working of Solar Cell
Basics of Solar Thermal Conversions
Outline of Thesis
Solar Dryer
Basics of Solar Dryers
Need For Dryers
Various Methods of Drying
Basics of Solar Drying Technique
Difference Between OSD & Solar Drying
Various Types of Solar Dryers
Working Consist of Hybrid Solar Dryer
Advantages & Reasons For Limited Use In India
Applications of Solar Dryers
Literature Review
Direct Solar Dryer
Indirect Solar Dryer
Mixed Mode Solar Dryer
Hybrid Solar Dryer
Conclusions
The outcome of Literature Review
Selection of Food Products
Methodology And Design Criterion
Methodology
Design Criterion
Selection of Solar Dryer Type
Design of Solar Dryer
Working of Model
Design Calculations
The Fan/Blower Design
Computer-Aided Design of Hybrid Solar Dryer
Solar Collector
Drying Chamber
Trays
Stand
Computational Analysis
Pre-Processor
PostProcessor
Economic Analysis
Economic Analysis of Dried Food Products
Bill
Actual Components For Fabricating
Commercial Solar Dryers
Other Locations
Conclusion And Recommendations
Conclusion
Recommendations
References
Power Requirements
Optimum Angle of Inclination
Solar Collector Area Calculations
Calculation of Components
Chapter 1 City of Residence
Chapter 2 Estimation of Available Solar Resources
Chapter 3 Site Survey
Chapter 4 Load Estimation
Chapter 5 Electricity Bill & Estimated Load
Chapter 6 Design of BOS & Market Survey
Chapter 7 Economical Analysis & Estimation of Payback Period
Chapter 8 Conclusion
Design Calculations for Solar Water Heating Systemsangeetkhule
Chapter 1 City of Residence
Chapter 2 Estimation of Available Solar Resources
Chapter 3 Site Survey
Chapter 4 Load Estimation
Chapter 5 Estimation of Required Absorber Area
Chapter 6 Market Survey & Estimation of No. of Tubes for ETC
Chapter 7 Economical Analysis & Estimation of Payback Period
Chapter 8 Conclusion
THE GREEN BUILDING
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
COMPARISON
NEED FOR GREEN BUILDINGS IN INDIA
HOW TO MAKE OUR BUILDINGS GREEN?
STRATEGIES & TECHNOLOGY
BENEFITS & LIMITATIONS
FEATURES, MATERIALS & METHODS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GREEN BUILDING
TYPES OF GREEN BUILDING
LEED RATING SYSTEM
SOME GREEN BUILDINGS IN INDIA
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Heat Transfer Applications
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes.
Introduction
Applications
References
conclusion
A to D Convertors
work to convert analog (continuous, infinitely variable) signals to digital (discrete-time, discrete-amplitude) signals. In more practical terms, an ADC converts an analog input, such as a microphone collecting sound, into a digital signal.
Composite material
A composite material is a material that is produced from two or more constituent materials. These constituent materials have notably dissimilar chemical or physical properties and are merged to create a material with properties, unlike the individual elements.
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
COMPONENTS
NEED OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
FABRICATION METHODS
PROPERTIES
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
NATURAL FIBRES
APPLICATIONS
ARTIFICIALLY MADE COMPOSITES
PARTICLE REINFORCED COMPOSITES
FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES
REFERENCES
Active suspension system
An active suspension is a type of automotive suspension on a vehicle. It uses an onboard system to control the vertical movement of the vehicle's wheels relative to the chassis or vehicle body rather than the passive suspension provided by large springs where the movement is determined entirely by the road surface. So-called active suspensions are divided into two classes: real active suspensions, and adaptive or semi-active suspensions. While adaptive suspensions only very shock absorber firmness to match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions use some type of actuator to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.
Diamond Turn Machining
Diamond turning is turning using a cutting tool with a diamond tip. It is a process of mechanical machining of precision elements using lathes or derivative machine tools equipped with natural or synthetic diamond-tipped tool bits.
Introduction
Components and machine structure
Different types of equipment
Tooling specifications
Tolerance and aspect ratios
Working principle
Control systems and power requirement
Process parameters
Material to be machined
MRR and surface finish
Advantages and disadvantages
Applications
Advancement in DTM
Machine characteristics
Machine tool requirement
Bar graphs and tables
Conclusion
References
Animation video
Conventional Braking System
Introduction OfRegenerative Braking System
Necessity Of The System
Elements Of Regenerative Braking System
Different Types Of Regenerative Braking System
Advantages And Disadvantages
Research Papers
Conclusion
Future Scope
References
Regenerative Braking System
Regenerative braking is a way of taking the wasted energy from the process of slowing down a car and using it to recharge the car's batteries.
Introduction
Literature Review
Recent Research And
Development In Hess
Case Study
Regenerative Braking System In
Bus
Regenerative Braking
System In Railways
Conclusion
Future Scope
References
AUTOMATIC PORTABLE HAMMERING MACHINE
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT METHODS AND COMPONENT DETAILS
DESIGN OF HAMMERING MACHINE
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
FUTURE SCOPE
REFERENCES
CAD MODEL
Etching
In order to form a functional MEMS structure on a substrate, it is necessary to etch the thin films previously deposited and/or the substrate itself. In general, there are two classes of etching processes:
Wet etching where the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution
Dry etching where the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapour phase etchant
AUTOMATIC PORTABLE HAMMERING MACHINE
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT METHODS AND COMPONENT DETAILS
DESIGN OF HAMMERING MACHINE
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
FUTURE SCOPE
REFERENCES
CAD MODEL
AFFORESTATION AND NATIONAL AFFORESTATION PROGRAMME AND ACT - 2016sangeetkhule
AFFORESTATION AND NATIONAL AFFORESTATION PROGRAMME AND ACT - 2016
Afforestation is a process where new forests are planted across land without trees. As a forest grows, it naturally removes CO2 from the atmosphere and stores it in its trees.
Democratizing Fuzzing at Scale by Abhishek Aryaabh.arya
Presented at NUS: Fuzzing and Software Security Summer School 2024
This keynote talks about the democratization of fuzzing at scale, highlighting the collaboration between open source communities, academia, and industry to advance the field of fuzzing. It delves into the history of fuzzing, the development of scalable fuzzing platforms, and the empowerment of community-driven research. The talk will further discuss recent advancements leveraging AI/ML and offer insights into the future evolution of the fuzzing landscape.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY AND COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE
1. Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
(2020-21)
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY AND COORDINATE
MEASURING MACHINE
(Micro-CMM)
PRESENTED BY COURSE COORDINATOR
Abhishek Shahu (Roll no.-13) Dr.A.D.Urade
Sangeet Khule (Roll no.-60) (Dept. of Mechanical Engg.)
Sannidhya Shegoankar (Roll no.-61) Course Code : MET 452-6
Mechanical 4th year
1
2. Contents:
● Introduction
● Working principle ● Advantages
● Classification ● Applications
● Construction and working ● Advancement in CMM
● Different types of optical scope ● Machine characteristics
● Process capabilities and analysis ● Process parameters of CMM
● Testing ● Animation video
● Process parameters ● Research papers [7]
● Components and machine structure ● Bar graphs and tables
● Confocal laser scanning microscopy ● Conclusion
● Microscopic ● References 2
3. Introduction:
Optical Microscopy:
● The underlying operating principles for optical microscopes include spatial
resolution determined by the Rayleigh criterion and detected edge sharpness
determined by a combination of hardware e.g.
● Optical microscopes have the advantage of being fast and non-destructive.
● Optical microscopes tend to be repeatable for features as small as 0.25 µm. The
limiting factors for solution of optical metrology hardware are diffraction and the
ability to produce images with dear intensity changes.
● Often locating the edge of a part is difficult, as observed location varies with
lighting condition, noise, and assumptions made in the edge position algorithm.
● Lens type
● CCD camera.
Lighting conditions
● Coastal lighting, Ring lighting
Optical inspection is an
enhancement to simple visual
inspection performed with the
naked eye
Optical measurement refers
to noncontact measurement
using various light sources
3
4. Principle of Optical Microscope :
(Compound Microscope)
● An optical microscope creates a magnified image of an object specimen with an objective lens
and magnifies the image furthermore with an eyepiece to allow the user to observe it by the
naked eye.
● Assuming a specimen as AB in the following figure, primary image (magnified image) A'B' of
inverted real image is created with an objective lens.
Reflected light
4
5. Principle of Optical Microscope :
(Compound Microscope)
● (ob). Next, arrange the eyepiece (oc) so that primary image A'B' is located closer to the
eyepiece than the anterior focal point, then more enlarged erect virtual image A"B" is created.
● Put your naked eye in the eye (pupil) position on the eyepiece barrel to observe the enlarged
image. In short, the last image to be observed is an inverted virtual image.
● As described above, this type of microscope which creates a magnified image by combining an
objective lens making an inverted real image and an eyepiece making an erect virtual image is
called a compound microscope.
● The observation optical system in an optical microscope is commonly standardized on this
compound microscope. Meanwhile, such type of microscope that directly observes an inverted
real image magnified with an objective lens is called a single microscope.
● A microscopic observation on a TV monitor, recently popularized increasingly, uses the way of
directly capturing this inverted real image with a CCD camera, thereby being comprised of a
simple microscope optical system.
5
6. Principle :
Capabilities
● Reflection mode
● Transmission mode
● Raman spectroscopy
Resolution
● Far field optical microscopy
● Resolution = 1/2 µ, about 300 nm
µ : wavelength of light
Near field optical microscopy
● Resolution = the size of the aperture
● Diameter of aperture is 50 - 100 nm, << 1/2 µ
Aluminum triangle islands on glass slides ( 2.5 µm * 2.5 µm ).
6
7. Fig. Optical microscopy image
(A) Raw material of copper (B) 60% RTR
copper (C) 60% CR copper
Fig. The optical ray diagram for (a) transmitted illumination and (b) reflected
illumination.
7
8. Classification of Optical Microscopy :
● There are two basic types of optical microscopes
● Simple microscope ● Compound microscope
8
9. Classification of Optical Microscopy :
● Types of Optical (Incident Light) Microscopes
● Optical microscopes are categorized on a structure basis
according to the intended purpose.
An upright microscope (left photo) which observes a specimen
(object to be observed) from above is widely known as the
most common type with a multitude of uses.
An inverted microscope (right photo) which observes a
specimen from beneath is used for observing the mineralogy
and metallurgy specimens, etc. 9
14. Optical Microscope Components :
● Eyepiece:
The lens at the top that you look through. It contains 2 or more lenses that focus the
image. Usually has a 10x magnification.
● Turret:
This holds 2 or more objective lenses and can be rotated easily to change magnification
power. Normally when viewing a slide for example, it is best to start the magnification
at the lowest and then work your way upwards.
● Objective:
1 or more objective lens that collect light. The lenses are usually in a cylindrical shaped
tube. The shortest lens has the lowest power i.e the lowest level of magnification, the
longest one is the lens that has the greatest magnification power. The objective lenses
usually have the magnification power 4x, 10x and 40x.
● Focus wheel:
These are wheels that move the stage in the vertical plane. There are also wheels for
adjusting coarse and focus. Some microscopes however, do allow focus at the eyepiece
as well.
14
15. ● Frame:
The frame consists of the arm, the base and is in essence the bodywork of the
microscope. It allows attachment of the focus wheels and the stage to the microscope.
● Light source:
A light source used in place of a mirror. Most microscopes do allow manual light
adjustment via a wheel located near the base.
● Condenser:
The function of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the specimen. To increase
the quality the condenser lens may also have filters or a diaphragm.
● Stage:
A platform underneath the objective that provides a platform for the slide to be
viewed. In the center of the stage is a hole which allows light to pass through. The
stage also normally has arms to hold the slide in place.
Optical Microscope Components :
15
16. Optical Microscopy :
● Significant errors of optical techniques typically stem from
● An important limitation of optical microscopes for MEMS inspection is the
inability to acquire true three-dimensional data. Some optical microscopes are
integrated with software that uses image processing techniques to determine the
Z-height at which the scan is taking place.
● The current state-of-the-art software uses a projected Ronchi grid to determine the
height at which the microscope is focused in one region of the image.
● If the region selected has multiple focus points (ie, the region selected is not all
on one plane), the algorithms assigns the average value for the Z-height.
● Interference
● Resonance
● Shadowing
● Secondary reflections
● Lens
distortions
16
17. Optical Microscopy :
● Further edge detection algorithms are run to extract X and Y data from the
microscope image. This technique, in theory, produces three dimensional data from an
image
● However, the algorithms used after finding the Z-height in one locations of the image
assume that all of the data are on the same plane.
● Thus, the data acquired from vision systems such as these can be characterized as 2.5-
D data sets.
● Using a stroboscopic method, in-plane dynamic motions can be measured
● However, dynamic measurement of out-of-plane dimensions is difficult.
● Petitgrand and Bosseboeu showed that an optical microscope can be combined with a
phase shifting stroboscopic interferometer to obtain sub-nanometer resolution three
dimensional dynamic measurements.
17
18. Optical Microscopy :
● The resolution (r) is given by the equation proposed by Lord Rayleigh:
where, l is wavelength of light, m is the refractive index of the medium between the
object (specimen) and the objective lens, and a is the semi-angle subtended.
The term msina is also known as the numerical aperture. Using equation, the best
resolution that can theoretically be obtained is in the range 150 to 200 nm.
The performance of any microscope can be understood in terms of two important
parameters: resolution and depth of field.
18
19. Optical Microscopy :
However, the various aberrations in the lenses would make degrade this resolution. The
depth of field is defined as the range of positions for the object (specimen) for which the
eye detects no change in sharpness of the image (see figure 1.2b). The depth of field (h)
is given by:
The depth of field is in the light microscope is of the order of 1 mm. Thus, the depth of
field is very small and therefore, for getting sharp images care has to be taken in sample
preparation. The specimen surface has to be very flat and horizontal.
19
20. Resolving Power :
The resolving power of an optical microscope a is given by the
Abbe equation
Where
● a: distance between two points on the surface of an
object that can be seen separated in the image
plane
● λ: effective wavelength of illumination used
● n: refractive index of objective medium A
● i: suspended angle of lens which depends on its
diameter and focal length 20
21. Optical Microscopy :
● The dimension size is determined by the distance moved
with the x-y stage between the two ends.
● An accuracy level of 1 μm is commonly available with
Abbe's microscopes. Better resolutions are achieved from
interferometric displacement measurement.
● Indeed, dimensions of holes, slots, and other features of
an object less than 200 μm can easily be measured with
accuracy better than 1 μm.
● TMMs are used for dimensional measurement of both
internal and external part features.
21
22. Optical Microscopy Analysis :
Optical microscopy testing capabilities:
● Fixing, Staining and Embedding of Difficult-to-Image Materials
● Expert Microtomy for Thin-section preparation
● Research Microscopy of Surfaces and internal Micro-structures
● Polarised Light Microscopy for identification of Contaminants
● Confocal Microscopy using Molecular Probes and 3D Reconstruction
● Hot-Stage Optical Microscopy Laboratory
● Cold and Shear Stages for altering Sample Micro-environments
● Dynamic Time-lapse Imaging for Fast and Slow events
● Digital Imaging from Macro to Ultra-micro Magnifications
● Fixing, Staining and Embedding of Difficult-to-Image Materials
● Optical Profilometry
● Non-Contact Evaluation of Encapsulated or Multi-component Systems
● Optimisation of Time Dependant variables such as Crystallisation
● Root Cause determination of Product Fracture or Product Failure
● Identification and Measurement of Product Contamination Problem
22
23. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy :
● Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) combines a confocal microscope
with a scanning system in order to gather a three-dimensional data set.
● A CLSM has four basic elements: point illumination, point detection, a confocal
lens system, and a method of scanning the image.
● A typical set-up is shown in Fig.
23
24. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy :
● Although scanning can be performed in several different ways, it is most often
done by moving the beam, which alleviates focus problems caused by objective
lens scanning and is faster than specimen scanning.
● Confocal microscopy is different from conventional microscopy in that it creates
an image point by point.
● Also, because of the double pinhole lens system, when the sample is moved out
of the focal plane of the objective, the light intensity at the detector decreases
rapidly, in effect allowing the system to focus on a single plane.
● A different plane can be imaged by moving the detection pinhole. With a
scanning system added, the system has the ability to scan multiple times on
different imaging planes, resulting in a three-dimensional data set.
24
25. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy :
● One of the most important advantages found is the ability of the microscope to
measure steep slopes, up to almost 90 degrees on a part with minimal surface
roughness.
● This measurement requires a high-resolution, high-numerical aperture objective,
which has a limited lateral measuring field unsuitable for measuring the entire
object.
● Because of mentioned limitation a stitching procedure is needed to combine scans
taken with several objectives.
25
26. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy :
● According to a designed and constructed a single-fiber-optic confocal microscope
a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) scanner and a miniature objective
lens.
● Axial and lateral resolution values for the system were experimentally measured
to be 9.55 μm and with 0.83 μm respectively.
● In good agreement with theoretical predictions reflectance images were acquired
at a rate of 8 frames per second, over a 140 µm x 70 um field-of-view.
● In anticipation of future applications in :
● Oral cancer detection
● Demonstrating the ability of the system to resolve cellular detail 26
30. Introduction to Micro-CMM :
➢ A coordinate measuring machine is a device that measures the geometry of physical
objects by sensing discrete points on the surface of the object with a probe. Various
types of probes are used in CMMs, including mechanical, optical, laser, and white light.
➢ Depending on the machine, the probe position may be manually controlled by an
operator or it may be computer controlled.
➢ CMMs typically specify a probe's position in terms of its displacement from a reference
position in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (i.e., with XYZ axes).
➢ In addition to moving the probe along the X, Y, and Z axes, many machines also allow
the probe angle to be controlled to allow measurement of surfaces that would otherwise
be unreachable. 30
33. New Probing Systems :
➢ There are newer models that have probes that drag
along the surface of the part taking points at specified
intervals, known as scanning probes.
➢ This method of CMM inspection is often more
accurate than the conventional touch-probe method
and most times faster as well.
➢ The next generation of scanning, known as non-
contact scanning, which includes high speed laser
single point triangulation,laser line scanning and white
light scanning, is advancing very quickly.
Fig: Motorised automated
probe head with electronic
touch trigger probe
33
34. Probes :
● Micro-CMM measures feature sizes in the range of mm to m. The probe tip should be as small
as possible.
● Two types of probes are necessary, namely the non-contact probe for surface profiling and the
contact probe for edge, steep surface and side wall measurements.
● The principle of non-contact probe is the use of focused laser beam that the spot diameter can be
smaller than 1 m. On the focusing plane the returned light will provide different image from the
out-of-focus planes.
● The key issue of contact probe is the ball tip that has to be made as small as possible while
possessing good sphericity. Its trigger mechanism should be as sensitive and as small contact
force as possible.
34
35. Focus Probe :
● A light from a laser diode is primarily polarised by a grating plate.
Having passed through a beam splitter and a quarter wave plate
(mounted on the beam splitter), it is focused by an objective lens
onto the object surface as a spot approximately 1 Pm in diameter,
about 2 mm from the sensor.
● The reflected beam signal is imaged onto a four-quadrant
photodetector within the sensor by means of the quarter wave
plate.
● The photodiode outputs are combined to give a focus error signal
(FES) that is used to respond to the surface variation. At the focal
plane the spot is a pure circle.
Fig. Optical system of the focus probe
35
36. The variation of spot shape with distance
producing S-curve of FES :
36
38. Contact Probe :
● A touch probe is composed of the probe stylus, the probe
mechanism, and the sensor.
● The probe tip must be spherical with diameters ranging from 500
m to 100 m, or less.
● It is normally made by gluing a microball on a micro tungsten
wire. The concentricity of the wire to the ball is a problem in
assembly that will cause measuring error because the probe radius
has to be compensated.
● A technique of fabricating monolithic probe stylus with melting
and solidification processes of a thin glass fibre to form a micro-
sphere tip has been developed.
Fig:
38
39. B. Mechanism of contact probe
C. Setup of touch probe calibration
A. Structure and motion of a touch probe
39
41. Structure of a Micro-CMM :
1 Semi-circular Bridge Structure :
● Rectangular type of the bridge is always employed in the precision CMM
structure for mounting the Z-axis probe.
● In order to meet the high precision requirement in nanometre measurement, the
conventional rectangular bridge shape has to be redesigned so that the stiffness is
higher.
● Therefore, a bridge of semicircular shape is used.
● The deformation at the centre of the bridge is very critical because the self-
weight, the concentrated load from the spindle and the generated driving force
will all act on the bridge.
41
43. Comparison of Bridge Centre Deflection :
The semi-circular bridge has higher stiffness than the conventionally rectangular type to
almost twice amount.
43
44. Structure of Micro-CMM :
2 Co-planar XY Stage :
► The top table is moved in the X-direction along the precision ground rods
mounted onto the frame, and the frame is moved in the Y-direction along the
precision ground rods of the base.
► The sliding surface of the moving part is mounted with a Teflon pad to reduce the
friction. Four guiding rods are located in the same plane, which means they share
the same vertical height.
► This is the essence of the co-planar stage that the Abbé error in vertical direction
can be significantly reduced.
► In addition, there are no transmission components and the geometry is
symmetrical, which ensures less random error and better static deformation under
the same working conditions.
44
47. Advantages :
● The optical CMM offers high geometric accuracy of several optical 3D measurements
in relation to each other, enabling the measurement of small surface details on large
components and precisely determining the position of these individual measurements in
relation to each other.
● The spectrum of measurable surfaces includes all common industrial materials and
composites such as plastics, PCD, CFRP, ceramics, chrome, silicon.
● Simple operation is implemented by single-button solutions, automation and ergonomic
control elements such as a specially designed controller.
● Air-bearing axes with linear drive enable wear-free use and highly accurate, fast
measurements.
47
48. Applications :
The optical high-resolution measurements enable manufactures to verify accuracy
of machining centers and achieve higher reproducibility of processes and products.
48
50. Research Papers :
● In this paper, comprehensive review concerning CMMs with capabilities to measure
micro/nano features has been presented.
● This work has also discussed different methods to estimate measurement uncertainty, as well
as performance evaluation of CMMs.
● Moreover, novel concepts such as intelligent CMM, multi-sensor CMM, virtual CMM have
been presented.
● The intelligent CMM would be able to perform all functions automatically such as extraction
of geometric and measuring information of part from its CAD file, selection of probe type,
determination of measuring features, generation of number and coordinates of measuring
points, etc.
● Intelligent planning environment for generating automated CMM inspection should be able
to interpret and extract necessary design information available in CAD model, generate data
structure for inspection plan and identify efficient inspection sequence
Title- New developments in coordinate measuring machines (CMM) for manufacturing industries.
Authors- S. Hammad Mian and A. Al-Ahmari Advanced Manufacturing Institute, College of
Engineering,, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.: 24 April 2014 published
50
51. Title-3D PRINTING ADDITIVE PROCEDURE MODEL CREATION AND DIMENSIONAL CHECK
USING CMM.
Author- Fakultetska, Zenica,University of Zenica,Faculty of Mechanical Engineering.
Fig: 3D printed model
51
52. Procedure to be Followed :
● The benchmark part is measured on Coordinate measuring machine Zeiss Contura G2.The
measurement plan in CMM software is made by CAD programming, using imported 3D model.
● After importing the model, it is necessary to define coordinate system, domain of measurement
probe movement and measure three referent planes on the model.
● After the workpiece alignment, measurement of all defined features is performed by CMM
scanning in one measurement cycle in CNC mode.
● Sixty different part measurement characteristics are defined in CMM measurement plan for
controlling printing accuracy on the benchmark part.
● The characteristics in CMM software are used for definition of controlled work piece
geometrical dimensions and tolerances and are possible output of a CNC measurement program.
Part features are used for definition,and features measurement results for calculation of
characteristics measurement results.
● The characteristics are grouped in six groups, and those are: flatness,perpendicularity, angularity,
parallelism,cylindricity and diameter cylinder.
52
55. Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) :
● Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is one of best known techniques in the
group known as the thermal analysis methods.
● Other techniques include differential thermal analysis methods, dynamic
mechanical analysis methods,and thermogravimetric analysis methods
● DSC is a thermal analysis technique used to measure the heat flows related to
transitions in materials as a function of time and temperature.
● These measurements provide qualitative and quantitative information about
physical and chemical changes that involve endothermic or exothermic processes or
changes in heat capacity.
55
56. Conclusion :
● In summary, Tools exist that have exceedingly high resolution, but are limited in range
(i.e. only a few square micrometers can be measured), tools exist that have sufficient
range, but are limited in their ability to measure drastic slope changes on the surface of
the part, a characteristic typical of high aspect ratio micromachined parts.
● The current solution to quantifying micro-scale MEMS parts is to use a combination of
tools. The combination of these techniques, at best, provides geometric information about
localized regions of a specific part, but a technique which provides geometric information
for an entire micromachined part has yet to be realized.
● After doing this research and study about CMM we are able to understand different terms
which are related to micro coordinates measuring machines and we were able to
demonstrate all the required process which are taking place inside the instrument and
capabilities of CMM. 56
57. References :
RESEARCH PAPERS :
● Liang, S., 2004, “Machining and metrology at micro/nano scale,” Keynote speech, In Proceedings of the 1st
International Conference on Positioning Technology,Hamamatsu, Japan, pp. 23–28.
● Sasaki, T., Ishida, K., Teramoto, Kawai, T., and Takeuchi, Y., 2007, “Ultraprecision micromilling of a small 3-D
parts with complicated shape,” In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference of EUSPEN, Bremen,
Germany, pp. 388–391.
● Weckenmann, A., Peggs, G. and Hoffmann, J., 2005, “Probing systems for dimensional micro and nano
metrology,” In Proceedings of International Symposium on Measurement Technology and Intelligent Instruments,
Huddersfield, UK, pp.199–206.
● Claverley, J.D.; Leach, R.K. A review of the existing performance verification infrastructure for micro-
CMMs.Precis. Eng. 2015, 39, 1–15
● Bauza, M.B.; Hocken, R.J.; Smith, S.T.; Woody, S.C. Development of a virtual probe tip with an application to
high aspect ratio microscale features. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2015, 76, 095112.
● Michihata, M.; Hayashi, T.; Adachi, A.; Takaya, Y. Measurement of Probe-stylus Sphere Diameter for Micro-
CMM Based on Spectral Fingerprint of Whispering Gallery Modes. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol.2014, 63, 469–
472.
● https://www.academia.edu/38168355/3D_printing_additive_procedure_model_creation_and_dimensional_check_
using_CMM
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