Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. They are synthesized in the presynaptic neuron, stored in vesicles, released into the synaptic cleft upon an action potential, and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. Common neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, glutamate, and serotonin. Neurotransmitters are involved in communication between neurons and play a role in diseases when their function is impaired.
Various neurotransmitters, mechanism of action and their physiological functions are explained and is useful for ug and pg students of medicine, neurology, psychiatry branches.
this ppt shares what synapses are and how information of one neuron is transmitted to other through the synapses. it also includes the properties and plasticity of synaptic transmission
Various neurotransmitters, mechanism of action and their physiological functions are explained and is useful for ug and pg students of medicine, neurology, psychiatry branches.
this ppt shares what synapses are and how information of one neuron is transmitted to other through the synapses. it also includes the properties and plasticity of synaptic transmission
Acetylcholine -
Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals as a neurotransmitter—a chemical message released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells, such as neurons, muscle cells and gland cells.
these slides contain a brief introduction of neurons and its classification as well as details of generation of action potential, resting potential and eletrotonic potential.
Acetylcholine -
Acetylcholine is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals as a neurotransmitter—a chemical message released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells, such as neurons, muscle cells and gland cells.
these slides contain a brief introduction of neurons and its classification as well as details of generation of action potential, resting potential and eletrotonic potential.
neurosteroid and neuropeptide biosynthetic pathway mechanism of action marketed formulation applications classifications recent findings refrences prepred by jonaid ali a student of m pharm 2nd sem jamia hamdard new delhi.
a presentation on GABA including its synthesis, storage and degradation, types of receptors, and implications in various neuropsychiatric disorder, and finally a small chart on the drugs acting on GABA system.
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A substance that is released at a synapse by a neuron and that effects another cell, either a neuron or an effectors organ, in a specialized manner , called neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit a signal from a neuron across the synapse to a target cell, which can be a different neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances made by the neuron specifically to transmit a message.
In order for neurons to send messages throughout the body, they need to be able to communicate with one another to transmit signals. However, neurons are not simply connected to one another. At the end of each neuron is a tiny gap called a synapse and in order to communicate with the next cell, the signal needs to be able to cross this small space. This occurs through a process known as neurotransmission.
There are a number of different ways to classify and categorize neurotransmitters. In some instances, they are simply divided into monoamines, amino acids, and peptides
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
2. INTRODUCTION
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that
transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across
a synapse.
Target cell may be a neuron or some other kind of cell like
a muscle or gland cell.
Necessary for rapid communication in synapse.
Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles -
presynaptic side of a synapse.
5. PROPERTIES OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
1) Synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
2) Localized to vesicles in the presynaptic neuron
3) Released from the presynaptic neuron under
physiological condition
4) Rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft by uptake
or degradation
5) Presence of receptor on the post-synaptic neuron.
6) Binding to the receptor elicits a biological response
8. ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh)
Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be discovered.
Isolated in 1921 by a German biologist named Otto Loewi.
Uses choline as a precursor - cholinergic neurotransmitter.
Used by the Autonomic Nervous System, such as smooth muscles
of the heart, as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Responsible for stimulation of muscles, including the muscles of
the gastro-intestinal system.
Used everywhere in the brain.
Related to Alzheimer's Disease.
9. DOPAMINE
Is synthesized in three steps from the amino acid tyrosine.
Associated with reward mechanisms in brain.
Generally involved in regulatory motor activity, in mood,
motivation and attention.
Schizophrenics have too much dopamine.
Patients with Parkinson's Disease have too little
dopamine.
Dopamine
10. NOREPINEPHRINE (nor adrenaline)
Synthesized directly from dopamine.
Direct precursor to epinepherine.
It is synthesized in four steps from tyrosine.
Synthesized within vesicles.
Norepinephrine is strongly associated with bringing our
nervous systems into "high alert."
It increases our heart rate and our blood pressure.
It is also important for forming memories.
Norepinephrine
11. GLUTAMATE
It is an amino acid
It the most commonly found
excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
It is involved in most aspects of normal brain
function including cognition, memory and learning.
Glutamate is formed from α – ketoglutarate, an
intermediate of Kreb’s cycle.
12. γ-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID (GABA)
Synthesized directly from glutamate.
GABA is the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter
Present in high concentrations in the CNS, preventing the
brain from becoming overexcited.
If GABA is lacking in certain parts of the brain, epilepsy
results.
GABA
13. SEROTONIN (5-HT)
Synthesized in two steps from the amino acid
tryptophan
Regulates attention and other complex cognitive
functions, such as sleep (dreaming), eating, mood,
pain regulation.
Too little serotonin has been shown to lead to
depression, anger control etc.
14.
15. 1.Neurotransmitters are
synthesized from precursors
under the influence of enzymes
2. Stored in vesicles
3.Neurotransmitter molecules
that leak from their vesicles are
destroyed by enzymes
4. Action potential cause vesicle
to fuse with synapse and release
neurotransmitters
5. Some of it binds with auto
receptor and inhibit subsequent
neurotransmitter release
6.Rest of it bind to post
synaptic receptors.
7.Released neurotransmitters
are deactivated either by re
uptake or enzyme degradation.
16. Steps in neurotransmitter processing are:
Synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized by the
enzymatic transformation of precursors.
Storage: They are packaged inside synaptic vesicles.
Release: They are released from presynaptic terminal by
exocytosis when calcium enters axon terminal
during an action potential
Diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic membrane.
Binding: They bind to receptor proteins.
Inactivation: The neurotransmitter is degraded either by
being broken down enzymatically, or reused by
active reuptake.
17.
18. MODE OF ACTION OF ACETYLCHOLINE
Release
• When nerve impulse reaches pre synaptic knob Ca
channels open.
• Increased Ca ions fusion of vesicle to
presynaptic membrane and release of ACh into cleft.
Binding
• ACh bind to receptors in post synaptic membrane.
• Ion channels open inflow of Na and K ions
• Depolarisation and formation of action potential.
• Propogation of action potential & contraction of
fibres.
Deactivation
• ACh is hydrolysed by acetyl cholinesterase.
• Choline taken back to presynaptic domain for
resynthesis of Ach.
19. ALCOHOL & NEUROTRANSMITTERS
It binds directly to receptors for ACh,
serotonin, GABA and glutamate.
It enhances the effects of the GABA,
which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
◦ Enhancing an inhibitor make things sluggish.
◦ The neuron activity is diminished- sedative effects of alcohol.
Alcohol inhibits glutamate receptor function.
◦ This causes discoordination, slurred speech, staggering,
memory disruption, and blackout.
Alcohol raises dopamine levels.
◦ This leads to excitement, pleasure and later addiction.
20. NICOTINE &
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Nicotine imitates the action of ACh &
binds to ACh receptor.
Like acetylcholine, nicotine leads to a burst of
receptor activity.
Nicotine activates cholinergic neurons in many
different regions throughout your brain
simultaneously.
This stimulation leads to:
◦ Increased release of glutamate.
◦ Stimulation of cholinergic neurons promotes the
release of dopamine. The production of dopamine
causes feelings of reward and pleasure.
22. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
A team of scientists from University of Barcelona in
2011, has discovered that D-aspartic acid (D-Asp) is
a novel neurotransmitter that could potentially be
used in the fight against neurological diseases such
as Parkinson's and schizophrenia.
According to a new study led by researchers at the
Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer
Center in 2011, doses of a neurotransmitter
dopamine might offer a way to boost the
effectiveness of anticancer drugs and radiation
therapy.
23. CONCLUSION
The ability of nervous system to orchestrate complex
behaviors, learn and remember depends on
communication between vast no: of neurons.
Mediated by neurotransmitters.
They play an important role in control and
coordination of body.
Many neurological diseases and mental disorders are
due to improper functioning of neurotransmitters.