Nervous system part 3

Nervous System Part 3
• Presented By –
• Prof.Dr.R.R.Deshpande
(M.D in Ayurvdic
Medicine & M.D. in
Ayurvedic Physiology)
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Sharir Kriya -- Paper 1 –Part B –Point 4
• Prof.Dr.R.R.Deshpande (M.D in Ayurvdic
Medicine & M.D. in Ayurvedic Physiology)
• www.ayurvedicfriend.com
• Mobile – 922 68 10 630
• mailme.drrrdeshpande@rediffmail.com

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Memory ( Smruti in Ayurved)
• Memory is the ability to recall past
experienced or information
• Memory is also retention of learned
materials

Anatomical aspect of Memory
• The parts of the brain, associated with
memory are -----
• Association cortex of the frontal, parietal,
occipital, temporal lobes
• Limbic system (Hippocampus,
amygdaloid nucleus), Diencephalon.

Anatomical aspect of Memory
• There exists synapse for memory coding
• There are 2 separate pre synaptic
terminals (primary pre synaptic terminal &
facilitator terminal)
• When sensory terminal is stimulated
with facilitator terminal, signals remain
strong for few months or few years

Physiological aspect of memory
• Memory is stored in brain, by the alteration
of synaptic transmission.
• Through facilitation memory storage is
enhanced. This process is called as
memory sensitization
• Through in habituation, memory storage
is attenuated or decrease in strength.
This is negative memory

Types of memory
• Short term memory is the temporary
ability to recall a few pieces of information
• Long term memory last for days to years.

Types of memory
• In short term memory number of pre
synaptic terminals & size of terminals are
increased
• In long term memory neuronal circuit is
rein forced by constant activity, memory
is consolidated & encoded (at
Hippocampus & Papez circuit).

Types of memory
• Experimental studies of memory &
learning are carried out in the Sea snail,
called as Aplysia.
• Eric Kandel is the pioneer to use Aplysia

Chemical or molecular aspect of memory
• Memory Ingram is a process through
which memory is facilitated & stored in the
brain (by structural & biochemical
changes)
• This is memory trace.

Chemical or molecular aspect of memory
• Neurotransmitter serotonin plays a major
role in molecular basis of facilitation.
Calcium ions increase the release of
serotonin.
• Habituation is due to passive closure of
calcium channels of terminal membrane.

Consolidation of memory
• This is the process through which short
term memory is converted in to a long
term memory.
• Rehearsal of same information again &
again accelerates & potentiates this
transformation process.

• Long term potentiation (LTP) is related
with memory, neurotransmitter glutamate
stimulates release of nitric oxide (No) from
the post synaptic neurons
• NO is responsible for induction of LTP.
• Acetylcholine (Ach) also play an
important role in memory

• In Alzheimer’s disease, there is a depletion of
some part of brain region, where Ach is
synthesized
• Nucleic acids are also related with long term
memory
• DNA & RNA store information DNA persist for
lifetime of the cell
•

• If RNA formation is inhibited, long term
memory will not occur
• RNA synthesis depends up protein
synthesis
• So there is relation of Protein with
Memory

Clinical significance
• 1) Amnesia - this is loss of memory.
• Anterograde amnesia occurs due to
lesion in Hippocampus.
• There is failure to generate new long term
memories.
• In Retrograde amnesia, there is problem
to recall past remote memory
• It happens in temporal lobe syndrome.

Clinical significance
• 2) Dementia –
• In addition to loss of memory, there is
progressive loss of intellect, emotional
control, social behavior & motivation
• This is common after the age of 65.

Causes of Amnesia & Dementia
• Most common is Alzheimer’s disease.
• Other causes are
• Hydrocephalus
• Parkinson’s
• Viral encephalitis
• HIV, Hypothyroidism
• Cushing’s syndrome
• Alcoholic intoxication
• Poisoning by high dose of barbiturates,
• Heavy metals.

Alzheimer’s disease
• This is progressive neurodegenerative disease.
• Death of neurons are in cerebral hemispheres
Hippocampus & pons.
• Due to deficiency of enzyme Choline acetyl
transferase, there is less synthesis of Ach.
• Due to degeneration of locus seruleus, synthesis
of nor epinephrine decreases.

Alzheimer’s disease
• Patient suffers from loss of recent memory, lack
of thinking & judgment. There are personality
changes.
• Further psychiatric features developed. Motor
functions are affected.
• Patient lives vegetative life without thinking
power. At moment no treatment is available.
• Physostigmine inhibits cholinesterase. This
gives moderate improvement

Learning
• Learning is a process, to acquire new
information.
• It is of 2 types –
•
• Non associative learning
• Associative learning.

Non associative learning
• Non associative learning is a response of
a person to only one type of stimulus
• It is based on Habituation & Sensitization
• Habituation is, getting used to something,
to which a person is constantly expose

• After some time a person is Habituated to
the stimulus & ignores it
• Sensitization is a process, by which the
body is made to become more sensitive to
a stimulus.

• This is amplification of response
• When same stimulus is combines with
another pleasant or unpleasant stimulus,
the person becomes more sensitive to
original stimulus.

• Eg. While driving on the road a person is
familiar to regular traffic sounds
• But if one day a person hears screaming,
he gets shocked or sensitized with this
stimulus.

Associative learning
• This is a complex process
• This is learning about relations between 2
or more stimuli at a time
• The example is conditioned reflexes
• This is the acquired reflex, which required
learning, memory & recall of previous
experiences.

Associative learning
• They are of 2 types ---
• Classical conditioned reflexes &
• Instrumental conditioned reflexes
• Very famous example of classical
conditioned reflex is demonstrated by the
classical Bell - Dog experiment, done by
Ivan Pavlov

Instrumental conditioned reflexes
• To develop these type of reflexes the
animal is taught to perform some task in
order to obtained a reward or to avoid a
punishment
• Learning & memory are the
physiological basis of conditioned
reflexes.

Instrumental conditioned reflexes
• So, learning is the ability to acquire skills
through instructions or experience
• Capability for change with learning is
called as plasticity
• This is the ability to change behavior in
response to stimuli from the external &
internal environments.

Motivation
• Motivation is the psychological feature that
arouses an organism to act towards a desired
goal & elicits, controls, & sustains certain goal
directed behaviors
• It can be considered a driving force; a
psychological drive that compels an action
toward a desired goal

Motivation
• For example, hunger is a motivation that
elicits a desire to eat
• Motivation has been shown to have roots
in physiological, behavioral, cognitive, &
social areas.

Motivation
• Motivation may be rooted in a basic
impulse to optimize well - being, minimize
physical pain & maximize pleasure
• It can also originate from specific physical
needs such as eating, sleeping/ resting, &
sex

Theories & models
• Intrinsic & extrinsic motivation
• Motivation can be divided into 2 types
• Intrinsic (internal) motivation &
• Extrinsic (external) motivation

Intrinsic motivation
• Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation
that is driven by an interest or enjoyment
in the task itself
• Exists within the individual rather than
relying on external pressures or a desire
for reward

• Students who are intrinsically motivated
are more likely to engage in the task
willingly as well as work to improve their
skills
• Which will increase their capabilities

• Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated
if they:
• Attribute their educational results to factors
under their own control, also known as
autonomy
• Believe they have the skills which will allow them
to be effective agents in reaching their desired
goals without relying on luck
• Are interested in mastering a topic, not just in
achieving good grades.

Extrinsic motivation
• Extrinsic motivation refers to the
performance of an activity in order to
attain an outcome
• Extrinsic motivation comes from outside
of the individual

• Common extrinsic motivations are –
• Rewards (for example money or grades)
for showing the desired behavior &
• The threat of punishment following
misbehavior

• Competition is in an extrinsic motivator
because it encourages the performer to
win & to beat others, not simply to enjoy
the intrinsic rewards of the activity
• A cheering crowd & the desire to win a
trophy are also extrinsic incentives

Comparison of
intrinsic & extrinsic motivation
• Social psychological research has
indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead
to----
• Over justification and
• A subsequent reduction in intrinsic
motivation.

Self - control
• The self - control aspect of motivation is
increasingly considered to be a subset of
emotional intelligence
• It is suggested that although a person
may be classed as highly intelligent, they
may remain unmotivated to pursue
intellectual endeavors

Drives
• Basic drives could be sparked by
deficiencies such as hunger, which
motivates a person to seek food
• Whereas more subtle drives might be the
desire for praise & approval, which
motivates a person to behave in a manner
pleasing to others.

Incentive theory
• Studies show that if the person receives
the reward immediately, the effect is
greater, & decreases as delay lengthens
• Repetitive ‘Action – Reward’ combination
can cause the action to become habit.

Incentive theory
• Motivation comes from 2 sources
• Oneself & from other people
• These 2 sources are called as ---
• Intrinsic motivation & extrinsic
motivation, respectively.

Escape - seeking model
• Escapism & seeking are major factors
influencing decision making.
• Escapism is a need to break away from a
daily life routine, turning on the television
& watching an adventure film
• whereas Seeking is -- desire to learn,
turning on the television to watch a
documentary.

Need theories
• Motivation, as defined by Pritchard &
Ashwood ------
• This is the process used to allocate
energy to maximize the satisfaction of
needs

Herzberg's 2 - factor theory
• "Respect for me as a person" is -----
• One of the top motivating factors at any
stage of life

Herzberg distinguished between
• Motivators --- eg. challenging work,
recognition, responsibility which give
positive satisfaction and
• Hygiene factors -- eg. status, job security,
salary and fringe benefits that do not
motivate if present, but, if absent, result in
demotivation.

Motivator - Hygiene Theory
• The name Hygiene factors is used
because, like hygiene, the presence will
not make you healthier, but absence can
cause health deterioration
• The theory is sometimes called the
"Motivator - Hygiene Theory" and/or "The
Dual Structure Theory. "

Physiology of sleep
• Limbic System
• Certain components of the cerebral
hemisphere & diencephalon constitute the
limbic (Limbus = Border) system
• Research work shows -- its association
with a control of visceral functions as a
primary area for emotional expression
& outlets.

Limbic System(IMP regions)
• 1) Cortex (Limbic Lobe) - Largest components
are Para - hippocampal & Cingulate Gyri (both
gyri of cerebral hemispheres) & Hippocampus,
which extends into the floor of the lateral
ventricle
• 2) Dentate Gyrus
• 3) Amygdaloid body (Amygdala) 4) Septal
Nuclei

Limbic System
• 5) Mammillary bodies of the
hypothalamus
• 6) Anterior nucleus of the hypothalamus
• 7) Olfactory bulbs
• 8) Bundles of interconnecting myelinated
axons.

Limbic System
• The Limbic System is a wishbone
shaped group of structures that encircles
the brain stem & functions in the
Emotional aspects of behavior related to
survival
• The Hippocampus, together with portions
of the cerebrum also functions in Memory.

Limbic System
• Memory impairment results from lesions in
the limbic system
• Experiments on the limbic system of the
monkeys & other animals indicate that the
Amygdaloid Nucleus assumes a major
role in controlling the overall pattern of
behavior.

Limbic System
• Limbic System is associated with Pleasure & Pain
• Stimulation of the perifornical nuclei of the
hypothalamus results in a behavioral pattern called
Rage
• The animal assumes a defensive posture - extending its
claws, raising its tail, hissing, spitting, growling &
opening its eyes wide. Stimulating other areas of the
limbic system results in an opposite behavioral pattern -
docility, tameness & affection.

Limbic System
• Limbic system assumes a primary function
in emotions such as pain, pleasure, anger,
rage, fear, sorrow, sexual feelings, docility
& affection
• Hence called as Visceral or Emotional
Brain

Sleep
• Definition –
• A state of consciousness, that differs from
alert wakefulness, by a loss of critical
reactivity, to events in the environment &
accompanied by a profound alteration in
the function of the brain.

Sleep
• Rhythm - One sleep period in 24 hours
• It also depends on habit
• Commonly, sleep occurs during the
period of rest i.e. - at night
• In night workers, day sleeping is the habit.

Sleep
• Requirement - Varies inversely with age
•
• New born baby - 16 - 20 Hours
• Children - 12 - 14 Hours
• Adults - 7 - 9 Hours
• Old age - 5 Hours

Sleep
• Curve –
• 1) In adults - Max. depth at the end of 1st
hour.
• 2) In children - 2 max. periods -
• a) Between 1st & 2nd hour.
• b) Between 8th & 9th hour.
• (No dreams during deep sleep.)

Physiological responses during sleep
• 1) C. V. S. - Pulse ↓, B. P. ↓
• 2) RS - Rate ↓
• 3) B. M. R. - ↓
•
• 4) Secretions - Salivary & lacrimal - ↓
• Gastric - ↑ or unaltered
• Sweat - ↑

Physiological responses during sleep
• 5) Muscles - Relaxed.
• 6) Eyes -- Eye - balls - roll up & out
• (Due to flaccid external ocular muscles),
• Eye lids - come closer (due to drooping of the
upper lids),
• Pupils – contracted
• 7) CNS - EEG = Appearance of δ waves,
• Deep Reflexes - ↓, Babinski - Extensor

Different stages during sleep
• 1) Light sleep = Rapid Eye Movement
Sleep (REM Sleep) = Rhomben - cephalic
sleep - During this stage, high incidence of
penile erection & grinding of teeth
(Bruxism)
• 2) Non Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
(NREM Sleep) = Slow Wave Sleep.

Causes of sleep
• 1) Howell's Theory of Cerebral Ischaemia
• The drowsiness after food is due to splanchnic
vasodilatation, fall of B. P. & consequent
cerebral ischaemia.
• 2) Biochemical theories
• a) Acetylcholine - Acetylcholine is closely related
to functional integrity of the nervous system. It is
claimed that sleep is due to the accumulation of
Acetylcholine in the cerebral cortex.

Causes of sleep
• b) Hypnotoxin - Some scientists claim that
hypnotoxin, which is liberated from the brain
tissue, produces sleep.
• c) Lactic Acid - During fatigue, lactic acid
accumulates in the tissues. Lactic acid
depresses the activities of the cerebral cortex.
(But what is real ? - In fatigue, there is often
sleeplessness & oxidation of lactic acid occurs
which supplies energy to the brain, which
disapprove this theory.)

Causes of sleep
• 3) Kleitman's Theory
• More acceptable than others. Due to reduction
of muscle tone & discharge of less afferent
impulses, cerebral cortex remain inactive.
• Fatigue of the muscle with consequent reduction
of transmission of afferent impulses to the
cerebral cortex & thereby keeping it inactive
seems to be a plausible factor in the production
of sleep.

Pathology
• Insomnia –
• Abnormal wakefulness or inability to sleep

Effects of insomnia
• (Symptoms observed, when subjects keep
awake for 60 - 114 hours) –
• Equilibrium – disturbed
• Neuromuscular fatigue
• mental concentration difficult &
inaccurate
• Threshold for pain – lowered
• Babinski - Extensor

Dreams
• Dreams are successions of images, ideas,
emotions, and sensations that occur
involuntarily in the mind during certain
stages of sleep.
• The content & purpose of dreams are not
definitively understood
• Dreams have been a topic of scientific
speculation, philosophical & religious interest.

Dreams
• The scientific study of dreams is called
Oneirology
• Scientists believe that, in addition to
humans, certain birds & the majority of
mammals also dream.

Dreams
• Dreams mainly occur in the rapid - eye
movement (REM) stage of sleep - when brain
activity is high & resembles that of being awake
• REM sleep is revealed by continuous
movements of the eyes during sleep
• Dreams may occur during other stages of sleep,
however, these dreams are not memorable

Dreams
• Dreams can last for a few seconds, or as long as
twenty minutes
• People are more likely to remember the dream
if they are awakened during the REM phase
• The average person has about 3 to 5 dreams
per night, but some may have up to 7 dreams in
1 night

Dreams
• The dreams tend to last longer as the
night progresses
• During a full 8 - hour night sleep, 2
hours of it is spent dreaming

Dreams
• In modern times, dreams have been seen as a
connection to the unconscious
• They range from normal & ordinary to bizarre
• Dreams can have varying natures, such as
frightening, exciting, magical, melancholic,
adventurous, or sexual
• Dreams can at times make a creative thought
occur to the person or give a sense of
inspiration.

Dreams
• Dream interpretations date back to 5000 - 4000
BC.
• The Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who
developed the discipline of psychoanalysis,
wrote extensively about dream theories &
interpretations.
• He explained dreams as manifestations of our
deepest desires & anxieties, often relating to
repressed childhood memories or obsessions.

Cultural meaning
• The Mesopotamians believed that the soul, or
some part of it, moves out from the body of the
sleeping person & actually visits the places &
persons the dreamer sees in his sleep.
• Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams were
like oracles, bringing messages from the gods.
• They thought that the best way to receive divine
revelation was through dreaming & thus they
would induce dreams.

Cultural meaning
• The Greeks shared their beliefs with the
Egyptians on how to interpret good &
bad dreams, & the idea of incubating
dreams.
• Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384 - 322
BC) believed dreams caused physiological
activity. He thought dreams could analyze
illness and predict diseases.

Dynamic psychiatry
• Freudian view of dreams
• In the late 19th century, psychotherapist
Sigmund Freud developed a theory that
the content of dreams is driven by
unconscious wish fulfillment.
• Freud called dreams the "royal road to the
unconscious".

Dynamic psychiatry
• Freudian view of dreams
• He theorized that the content of dreams
reflects the dreamer's unconscious mind &
specifically that dream content is shaped
by unconscious wish fulfillment.
• He argued that important unconscious
desires often relate to early childhood
memories & experiences

The neurobiology of dreaming
• Accumulated observation has shown that
dreams are strongly associated with rapid
eye movement sleep.
• During REM sleep, the release of the
neurotransmitters norepinephrine,
serotonin & histamine is completely
suppressed

Dreams in animals
• REM sleep & the ability to dream seem to
be embedded in the biology of many
organisms that live on Earth.
• All mammals experience REM.

Dreams in animals
• The range of REM can be seen across
species:
• Dolphins experience minimum REM,
• While humans remain in the middle &
• The opossum & the armadillo are among
the most prolific dreamers.

Other hypotheses on dreaming
• There are many other hypotheses about
the function of dreams, including:--
• Dreams allow the repressed parts of the
mind to be satisfied through fantasy
while keeping the conscious mind from
thoughts that would suddenly cause one to
awaken from shock.

Other hypotheses on dreaming
• Freud suggested that bad dreams let the brain
learn to gain control over emotions resulting
from distressing experiences.
• Jung suggested that dreams may compensate
for one - sided attitudes held in waking
consciousness.
• Ferenczi proposed that the dream, when told,
may communicate something that is not being
said outright

Relationship with medical conditions
• There is evidence that certain medical
conditions (normally only neurological
conditions) can impact dreams
• For instance, some people with
synesthesia have never reported entirely
black & white dreaming, & often have a
difficult time imagining the idea of
dreaming in only black & white

Relationship with medical conditions
• Therapy for recurring nightmares
• Often associated with posttraumatic stress
disorder –
• Can include imagining alternative
scenarios that could begin at each step of
the dream.

Electro - Encephalography - EEG
• This is the recording of electrical activity
along the scalp.
• EEG measures voltage fluctuations,
resulting from ionic current, flows within
the neurons of brain.

• EEG = recording of brains spontaneous
electrical activity for 20 - 40 min recorded with
multiple electrodes, placed on scalp.
• This is the main diagnostic test for epilepsy.
• It is also helpful in the diagnosis of coma,
encephalopathies & brain death.

• It is also used in the studies of sleep &
sleep disorders (recording is done for 1 full
night)
• EEG was first line method to diagnose
tumors, stroke & other focal brain
disorders.
• This use is decreased with the advent
of MRI & CT

Source of EEG activity
• Electrical charging of brain is maintained by
neurons.
• Neurons are constantly exchanging ions with
the extracellular surrounding.
• When wave of ions reaches the electrodes on
scalp, they can push or pull electrons on the
metal of electrodes.

• The difference in push or pull voltages
between any 2 electrodes can be
measured by a voltmeter.
• Recording these voltages for particular
time gives EEG.

• Scalp EEG activity shows oscillations at
a variety of frequencies.
• These oscillations have characteristic
frequency ranges.
• These ranges are associated with different
states of brain functioning (like waking
state & various sleep stages.)

Clinical use of EEG
• 1) To distinguish epileptic seizures from
other types of convulsions like
psychogenic nonepileptic fits, cyncope or
fainting.
• 2) To differentiate organic encephalopathy
or delirium from psychiatric syndromes like
catatonia.
• 3) This is an adjuvent test for brain death.

Clinical use of EEG
• 4) To make prognosis of comatose
patients.
• 5) To decide whether to reduce
antiepileptic drugs.

Clinical use
• Sometimes a routine EEG is not sufficient & EEG is
constantly recorded during actual epileptic fit.
• This is done to differentiate-
• 1) Between epileptic fits from non epileptic convulsions.
•
• 2) To identify the character of seizure for giving
different types of treatments.
• 3) To localize the region from the brain where a seizure
originates (for work up of possible seizure surgery)

EEG can be used
to monitor certain procedures
• 1) To monitor the depth of anesthesia.
• 2) This is indirect indicator of cerebral
perfusion in carotid end arterictomy
• First human EEG recording was obtained
by Han’s Burger in 1924.

EEG can be used
to monitor certain procedures
• EEG does not involve exposure to high
intensity magnetic field as in MRI
• It also does not involve exposure to radio
- ligends unlike positron emission
tomography.

EEG - limitations & disadvantages
• 1) Lower resolution (MRI) can directly
display areas of brain which are active,
while EEG requires intense interpretation
to decide which areas are activated by a
particular response
• 2) EEG determines neural activity, which
occurs below cortex of brain very poorly

EEG - limitations & disadvantages
• 3) Unlike PET & MRS, EEG can not
identify specific locations at which various
neurotransmitters drugs can be found
•
• 4) Takes a long time to connect a patient
to EEG (precise placements of many
electrodes around head - Less time for
MRI etc.)

Method for EEG
• Recording is obtained by placing
electrodes on scalp with a conductive gel
or paste
• (after preparing scalp area by light
abrasion to reduce impedance due to
dead skin cells)

Method for EEG
• Electrodes are attached to individual wire,
19 electrodes with earthlings are used
• In neonates they are less in number
• Each electrode is connected to one input
of differential amplifier
• Digital EEG signal is stored electronically
& can be filtered for display.

Method of EEG
• Adult human EEG signal is about 10 μv -
100 μv in amplitude
• EEG is read by neurologist
•
• EEG is described in terms of rhythmic
activity & transients

Wave patterns in EEG
• 1) Delta waves (δ)
• Frequency range up to 4 Hz. Highest in
amplitude & shortest wave. It is seen in adults, in
slow wave sleep, also seen in babies.
• Pathologically, it may be seen locally with sub
cortical lesions & in general distribution with
metabolic encephalopathy, hydrocephalus

• 2) Theta waves (θ)
• Range from 4 - 7 Hz.
• Seen normally in young children or in
drowsiness.
• Also seen during meditation.
• Pathologically same like δ waves.

• 3) Alpha waves (α)
• Frequency 8 - 12 Hz. Seen in posterior
region of head on both the sides
• It emerges with closing of eyes & with
relaxation & attenuates with eye opening
or mental exertion.

• 4) Beta waves ( )
• Range from 12 - 30 Hz.
• Beta activity is closely linked to motor
behavior & alternated during active
movements
• It may be absent or reduced in areas of
cortical damage

• 5) Gamma waves ( )
• Range from 30 - 100 Hz
• They are seen in certain cognitive or
motor functions
• EEG varies with age & also state of mind

EEG during sleep
• 1) Stage I seep - increase in θ (Theta)
frequency.
• 2) Stage II sleep - characterized by spindles.
Range - 12 - 14 Hz.
• 3) Stage III & IV sleep - called as (slow wave
sleep). Presence of δ (delta) frequencies (non
rapid eye movements)
• Stage III & IV sleep = NREM
• The EEG in REM sleep is similar to awake EEG.

Physiology of Temperature Regulation
• Birds & mammals (Man) are warm
blooded animals or homeothermic animals
• Body temperature is maintained at a
constant level, irrespective of the
environmental temperature
• Amphibians & reptiles are poikilo thermic
or cold blooded animals

• Temperature can be measured in the
mouth, axilla, rectum
• Rectal temperature is higher than oral
• oral is higher than axillary temperature
• Normal oral temperature varies between
96.4 to 99.10F
• core temperature of the body is 100F in
human being.

• Physiological variation of body
temperature can occur as per ----
• Age, sex,
• Diurnal variation,
• After meals, exercise,
• Sleep, emotion,
• Menstrual cycle.

• Hyperthermia or fever is abnormal
increase in the body temperature
• Fever is mostly caused by bacteria &
there toxins & viruses
• Decrease body temperature is called as
hypothermia.

• Normal body temperature is maintained by
the hypothalamus, with the help of ---
• Heat loss centre (situated in pre optic
nucleus of anterior hypothalamus) &
• Heat gain centre. (situated in posterior
hypothalamic nucleus)
• The hypothalamic thermostat is in the pre
optic area.

• Body temperature is depend on the
metabolic rate of the body
• Metabolic rate is affected by ---
• Exercise, the nervous system, hormones,
ingestion of food, age, sex, climate, sleep
& malnutrition.

• Heat is retained in the body through ---
• Vasoconstriction, sympathetic stimulation,
skeletal muscle contraction & thyroid
hormone production
• Heat loss occur through ----
• Radiation, evaporation, conduction &
convection

• Radiation is the transfer of heat from a
warmer object to a cooler object, without
physical contact
• Evaporation is the conversion of liquid to
a vapor

• Conduction is the transfer of body heat to
a substance or object in contact with the
body
• Convection is transfer of body heat by a
liquid or gas, between areas of different
temperatures

Mechanism of temperature regulation
• 1) When body temperature increases,
temperature regulation occur by 2
mechanisms –
• a) promotion of heat loss
• b) prevention of heat production.
• Promotion of heat loss occur, by
increasing the secretion of sweat
(Diaphoretic ,internal medicine)

Mechanism of temperature regulation
• By inhibiting sympathetic centers in
posterior hypothalamus (it causes
coetaneous vasodilatation, causing
excessive sweating)
• Heat loss centre prevents heat production
by inhibiting, shivering & metabolic
reactions.

• 2) What happens when body
temperature decreases? –
• Temperature is brought back to normal by
preventing heat loss & promotion of heat
production.

Heat production is promoted by
following ways
• 1) Shivering –
• Heat gain centre stimulates the primary
motor centre for shivering, when
enormous heat is produced, because of
severe muscular activities

following ways
• 2) Metabolic reactions are increased -
sympathetic centers are activated by heat
gain centre
• They stimulate secretion of adrenaline &
nor adrenaline
• Adrenaline accelerates cellular metabolic
activities.

following ways
• Also hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin
releasing hormone, which releases TSH
• Thyroxin accelerates the metabolic
activities.

following ways
• 3) Chemical thermo genesis –
• Heat is produced by metabolic activities,
induced by hormones

Practical importance
• If temperature regulation is disturbed, 2
problems can arise –
• Hyperthermia or fever
• Hypothermia

Fever - 3 types
• Mild Fever --- ------------- 98.5 to 100.4 F
• Low grade fever ----------- 100.4 to 102.2 F
• Moderate grade fever ----- 102.2 to 104 F
• High grade fever ------------- 104 to 107.6 F

Causes of fever
• Infection
• Hyperthyroidism
• Brain lesion

Clinical features of fever
• Warm body ,Headache, sweating,
• Shivering,
• Muscle pain,
• Dehydration,
• Weakness.
• In high grade fever there is convulsions,
confusion, irritability & hallucinations.

Hypothermia - 3 types
• Mild hypothermia ---------- 95 to 91.4 F
• Moderate hypothermia ---91. 4 to 87.8 F
•
• Severe hypothermia -------below 87.8 F

Causes or hypothermia
• Exposure to cold temperature
• Immersion in cold water
• Hypothyroidism
• Drug abuse
• Lesion in hypothalamus
• Haemorrhage in pons.

Clinical features of hypothermia
• In mild hypothermia ---
• Uncontrolled intense shivering,
• Pain
• Discomfort.

• In moderate hypothermia --
• Shivering stops but muscles become stiff
• Mental confusion,
• Shallow respiration,
• Weak pulse,
• Low BP.

• In sever hypothermia ---
• Weakness & exhaustion
• Skin becomes bluish gray
• Eyes are dilated
• Person loses consciousness

Prof.Dr.R.R.Deshpande
• Sharing of Knowledge
• FOR
• Propagating Ayurved
7/2/2016 173Prof.Dr.R.R.Deshpande

Nervous system part 3

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Nervous system part 3