Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an inflammatory disease of the intestine affecting premature infants. It has a mortality rate of 10-50% and is the most common intestinal emergency in neonatal intensive care units. The disease results from an aberrant immune response of the immature gut to enteral feeding and bacterial colonization. Risk factors include prematurity, type of feeding, and hypoxic events. Clinical signs include abdominal distention and feeding intolerance. Diagnosis involves abdominal x-rays showing pneumatosis intestinalis or free air. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and may require surgery for resection of necrotic intestine. Long term outcomes can include strictures, short bowel syndrome, and neurodevelopmental
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening condition that affects the intestines of premature infants. It results from necrosis of the intestinal tissue and can range from mild to severe. Risk factors include prematurity, formula feeding, and bacterial or viral infections. Symptoms may include abdominal distension, bloody stools, and temperature instability. Diagnosis involves x-rays showing pneumatosis intestinalis or portal venous gas. Treatment focuses on gut rest, broad-spectrum antibiotics, surgery for perforation or failure to improve, and careful feeding advancement after recovery. Outcomes depend on severity but may include strictures, adhesions, or short bowel syndrome.
Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis
NEC is the most common life-threatening emergency of the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn period. The disease is characterized by various degrees of mucosal or transmural necrosis of the intestine. The cause of NEC remains unclear but is most likely multifactorial. The incidence of NEC is 1-5% of infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Both incidence and case fatality rates increase with decreasing birthweight and gestational age. Because very small, ill preterm infants are particularly susceptible to NEC, a rising incidence may reflect improved survival of this high-risk group of patients.
Clinical Manifestations
Infants with NEC have a variety of signs and symptoms and may have an insidious or sudden catastrophic onset (Table 96-1). The onset of NEC is usually in the 2nd or 3rd week of life but can be as late as 3 mo in VLBW infants. Age of onset is inversely related to gestational age. The 1st signs of impending disease may be nonspecific, including lethargy and temperature instability, or related to gastrointestinal pathology, such as abdominal distention and gastric retention. Obvious bloody stools are seen in 25% of patients. Because of nonspecific signs, sepsis may be suspected before NEC. The spectrum of illness is broad, ranging from mild disease with only guaiac-positive stools to severe illness with bowel perforation, peritonitis, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, shock, and death. Progression may be rapid, but it is unusual for the disease to progress from mild to severe after 72 hr.
Diagnosis
A very high index of suspicion in treating preterm at-risk infants is crucial. Plain abdominal radiographs are essential to make a diagnosis of NEC. The finding of pneumatosis intestinalis (air in the bowel wall) confirms the clinical suspicion of NEC and is diagnostic; 50-75% of patients have pneumatosis when treatment is started (Fig. 96-4). Portal venous gas is a sign of severe disease, and pneumoperitoneum indicates a perforation (Figs. 96-4 and 96-5). Hepatic ultrasonography may detect portal venous gas despite normal abdominal roentgenograms .
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a leading cause of emergency surgery in neonates. It most commonly affects very low birth weight preterm infants. Classic signs on imaging include pneumatosis intestinalis, portal venous gas, and free air indicating perforation. Treatment involves management of sepsis, circulatory support, and may require surgery for advanced cases. Long-term complications are common, affecting 50% of survivors. Early diagnosis through monitoring for feeding intolerance and abdominal distension along with radiographic findings is important for optimal management of this serious gastrointestinal emergency in neonates.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a disease that causes death and necrosis of intestinal tissue, typically affecting premature and formula-fed infants. It has an incidence of 3 cases per 1000 live births. Risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, and enteral feeding. The exact cause is unknown but is likely multifactorial involving ischemia, reperfusion injury, and an exaggerated inflammatory response. Clinical presentation ranges from mild vomiting and feeding intolerance to systemic signs of shock. Management involves nil by mouth, IV fluids, antibiotics, and possible surgery for severe or perforated cases. Prognosis depends on severity but overall mortality is approximately 25%.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a devastating intestinal disease that primarily affects premature infants. It has multifactorial causes related to prematurity including rapid feeding advances, hypoxia, and indomethacin use. Clinically, infants may experience feeding intolerance and signs of sepsis. Diagnosis is supported by abdominal x-ray findings such as pneumatosis intestinalis. Management involves stopping feeds, antibiotics, and surgery for perforated or necrotic bowel. Despite treatment, NEC carries high mortality and morbidity rates, including short bowel syndrome.
Necrotizing enterocolitis is a disease that primarily affects premature infants, causing portions of the intestine to become inflamed and die. It is one of the most serious gastrointestinal diseases in neonates. Risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, and enteral feeding. Symptoms include abdominal distention, blood in stool, and feeding intolerance. Treatment involves stopping feedings, providing intravenous fluids and antibiotics, and potentially surgery to remove dead intestinal tissue. Complications can include intestinal perforation, stricture, or sepsis. The prognosis depends on severity but the disease has a mortality rate of around 25%.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired intestinal disease seen primarily in preterm infants. It is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal intensive care units. The exact cause is unknown but involves intestinal ischemia, enteral feeding, and pathogenic bacteria. Risk factors include prematurity, enteral feeding, and abnormal gut colonization. Clinically, NEC presents with abdominal signs and symptoms as well as systemic involvement. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and surgery for perforation or necrosis. Despite management, NEC carries significant mortality and morbidities like short bowel syndrome.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening condition that affects the intestines of premature infants. It results from necrosis of the intestinal tissue and can range from mild to severe. Risk factors include prematurity, formula feeding, and bacterial or viral infections. Symptoms may include abdominal distension, bloody stools, and temperature instability. Diagnosis involves x-rays showing pneumatosis intestinalis or portal venous gas. Treatment focuses on gut rest, broad-spectrum antibiotics, surgery for perforation or failure to improve, and careful feeding advancement after recovery. Outcomes depend on severity but may include strictures, adhesions, or short bowel syndrome.
Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis
NEC is the most common life-threatening emergency of the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn period. The disease is characterized by various degrees of mucosal or transmural necrosis of the intestine. The cause of NEC remains unclear but is most likely multifactorial. The incidence of NEC is 1-5% of infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). Both incidence and case fatality rates increase with decreasing birthweight and gestational age. Because very small, ill preterm infants are particularly susceptible to NEC, a rising incidence may reflect improved survival of this high-risk group of patients.
Clinical Manifestations
Infants with NEC have a variety of signs and symptoms and may have an insidious or sudden catastrophic onset (Table 96-1). The onset of NEC is usually in the 2nd or 3rd week of life but can be as late as 3 mo in VLBW infants. Age of onset is inversely related to gestational age. The 1st signs of impending disease may be nonspecific, including lethargy and temperature instability, or related to gastrointestinal pathology, such as abdominal distention and gastric retention. Obvious bloody stools are seen in 25% of patients. Because of nonspecific signs, sepsis may be suspected before NEC. The spectrum of illness is broad, ranging from mild disease with only guaiac-positive stools to severe illness with bowel perforation, peritonitis, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, shock, and death. Progression may be rapid, but it is unusual for the disease to progress from mild to severe after 72 hr.
Diagnosis
A very high index of suspicion in treating preterm at-risk infants is crucial. Plain abdominal radiographs are essential to make a diagnosis of NEC. The finding of pneumatosis intestinalis (air in the bowel wall) confirms the clinical suspicion of NEC and is diagnostic; 50-75% of patients have pneumatosis when treatment is started (Fig. 96-4). Portal venous gas is a sign of severe disease, and pneumoperitoneum indicates a perforation (Figs. 96-4 and 96-5). Hepatic ultrasonography may detect portal venous gas despite normal abdominal roentgenograms .
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a leading cause of emergency surgery in neonates. It most commonly affects very low birth weight preterm infants. Classic signs on imaging include pneumatosis intestinalis, portal venous gas, and free air indicating perforation. Treatment involves management of sepsis, circulatory support, and may require surgery for advanced cases. Long-term complications are common, affecting 50% of survivors. Early diagnosis through monitoring for feeding intolerance and abdominal distension along with radiographic findings is important for optimal management of this serious gastrointestinal emergency in neonates.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a disease that causes death and necrosis of intestinal tissue, typically affecting premature and formula-fed infants. It has an incidence of 3 cases per 1000 live births. Risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, and enteral feeding. The exact cause is unknown but is likely multifactorial involving ischemia, reperfusion injury, and an exaggerated inflammatory response. Clinical presentation ranges from mild vomiting and feeding intolerance to systemic signs of shock. Management involves nil by mouth, IV fluids, antibiotics, and possible surgery for severe or perforated cases. Prognosis depends on severity but overall mortality is approximately 25%.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a devastating intestinal disease that primarily affects premature infants. It has multifactorial causes related to prematurity including rapid feeding advances, hypoxia, and indomethacin use. Clinically, infants may experience feeding intolerance and signs of sepsis. Diagnosis is supported by abdominal x-ray findings such as pneumatosis intestinalis. Management involves stopping feeds, antibiotics, and surgery for perforated or necrotic bowel. Despite treatment, NEC carries high mortality and morbidity rates, including short bowel syndrome.
Necrotizing enterocolitis is a disease that primarily affects premature infants, causing portions of the intestine to become inflamed and die. It is one of the most serious gastrointestinal diseases in neonates. Risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, and enteral feeding. Symptoms include abdominal distention, blood in stool, and feeding intolerance. Treatment involves stopping feedings, providing intravenous fluids and antibiotics, and potentially surgery to remove dead intestinal tissue. Complications can include intestinal perforation, stricture, or sepsis. The prognosis depends on severity but the disease has a mortality rate of around 25%.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired intestinal disease seen primarily in preterm infants. It is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal intensive care units. The exact cause is unknown but involves intestinal ischemia, enteral feeding, and pathogenic bacteria. Risk factors include prematurity, enteral feeding, and abnormal gut colonization. Clinically, NEC presents with abdominal signs and symptoms as well as systemic involvement. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and surgery for perforation or necrosis. Despite management, NEC carries significant mortality and morbidities like short bowel syndrome.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a common gastrointestinal emergency in neonates, especially preterm infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal mucosa associated with inflammation and infection. Risk factors include prematurity, enteral feeding, and intestinal ischemia. Clinically, NEC presents with abdominal and systemic signs. Diagnosis is based on clinical features and radiographic findings like pneumatosis intestinalis. Treatment involves cessation of feeding, antibiotics, and possible surgery for perforation or failure to improve. Prognosis depends on gestational age and severity of disease. Prevention focuses on exclusive breastfeeding when possible.
1. Necrotizing enterocolitis is an acquired intestinal disease of unknown etiology that commonly affects premature infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal tissue.
2. The greatest risk factor is prematurity, with risk inversely related to birth weight and gestational age. Other risk factors include genetic factors, indomethacin exposure, maternal cocaine use, G6PD deficiency, H2 blockers, antibiotics like co-amoxiclav, and conditions that decrease mesenteric blood flow.
3. While the exact cause is unknown, factors that may contribute to pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, ischemic injury from hypotension, and dysregulated intestinal immune response to bacterial colonization in premature infants.
NEC is a devastating condition affecting premature infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal tissue. Key factors that increase risk are prematurity, enteral feeding, and circulatory instability in the intestines. Clinically, infants may experience apnea, feeding intolerance, and abdominal distension. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing infection and inflammation as well as imaging showing abnormalities in the intestines. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and sometimes surgery. Outcomes depend on severity but mortality can be over 40% in very premature infants and survivors face long-term complications.
1. Pneumonia is an inflammatory process in the lungs that can be caused by infection or other inflammatory conditions. It causes abnormalities in lung ventilation and gas exchange.
2. Congenital pneumonia specifically refers to pneumonia that is present at birth, usually caused by viral or bacterial infections transmitted from the mother. These infections can pose serious challenges to the immature newborn.
3. Pneumonia is a major cause of neonatal mortality worldwide. It requires prompt diagnosis and treatment including antibiotics, respiratory support, and careful management of cardiac and respiratory functions to prevent complications and ensure infant survival.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired intestinal disease of premature infants. It results from an interaction between intestinal ischemia and the host inflammatory response to enteral feeding. Risk factors include prematurity, aggressive enteral feeding, and abnormal gut colonization. Clinically, NEC progresses from nonspecific signs like temperature instability to severe abdominal distension and systemic involvement. Diagnosis relies on modified Bell's staging using clinical, laboratory, and radiographic findings. Treatment involves NPO, antibiotics, and supportive care. Surgery is indicated for perforation or failure to improve with medical management. Prognosis depends on gestational age and disease severity.
Definition of neonatal sepsis,type of neonatal sepsis ,early onset neonatal sepsis,late onset neonatal sepsis,Pathophysiology of neonatal sepsis,,sign and symptoms of neonatal sepsis, diagnosis of neonatal sepsis,management of neonatal sepsis, antibiotic used for neonatal sepsis,prevention of neonatal sepsis, prognosis of neonatal sepsis ,and A summary
This document discusses the embryology, diagnosis, and treatment of two congenital abdominal wall defects: gastroschisis and omphalocele.
Gastroschisis results from a failure of the lateral body folds to migrate, causing intestines to protrude through an abdominal wall defect to the right of the umbilicus. Prenatal ultrasound can diagnose it by 20 weeks. Treatment involves either primary closure or staged closure using a silo.
Omphalocele occurs when organs fail to return to the abdominal cavity during development, causing them to remain in the umbilical cord. It can involve liver and intestines protruding in a sac. Treatment options depend on size and may include immediate or staged
Gastroschisis is a birth defect where a hole in the abdominal wall allows intestines to protrude outside the baby's body. It occurs in about 0.1-0.3% of live births. The defect is usually on the right side of the belly button, with no protective sac covering the intestines. Treatment involves surgery to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity. Nursing care focuses on keeping the exposed intestines warm and sterile, managing fluids and nutrition, and monitoring for complications like infection or obstruction. Primary repair is preferred if the intestines will fit back inside, otherwise a staged repair using a synthetic sac is required.
Gastroschisis is a birth defect where the baby's intestines protrude outside of the abdominal wall near the umbilical cord. The cause is unknown but it occurs more often in younger mothers under 30. Diagnosis is usually made during physical examination after birth. Treatment involves surgery to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity and close the defect. With treatment, recovery is good though complications can include breathing issues or bowel death in rare cases.
INFANTILE HYPERTROPHIC PYLORIC STENOSISArkaprovo Roy
Intestinal hypertrophic pyloric stenosis is a condition characterized by thickening of the pyloric muscle which obstructs the gastric outlet. It typically affects infants between 2-8 weeks of age, with males being affected more often than females. Surgical pyloromyotomy is the treatment of choice and involves cutting the thickened pyloric muscle to relieve the obstruction. If diagnosed and treated early, the prognosis is excellent with complete resolution and no risk of recurrence after surgery.
This document provides an overview of duodenal atresia, including its definition, epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, management, complications, and differential diagnosis. Duodenal atresia is a congenital absence or closure of part of the duodenum due to defective fusion during development. It commonly presents after birth with vomiting, jaundice, and abdominal distension. Diagnosis is typically made through imaging findings like the "double bubble" sign on x-ray. Surgical management involves bypassing the blocked portion of duodenum through procedures like duodenoduodenostomy. Complications can include anastomotic issues or problems from associated anomalies.
Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: Lecture on HIESujit Shrestha
Clinically, more term babies suffered from hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) than premature babies. However, pathologically, more premature babies suffered from HIE than term babies. The main clinical manifestations of HIE are symptoms of consciousness, including excitation symptoms like hyperalertness, irritability, and seizures, or depressing symptoms like coma and hypotonia. Management of HIE focuses on monitoring, controlling seizures, general supportive care, and recent advances like therapeutic hypothermia. The prognosis depends on the severity of brain damage and treatment, with mild or moderate cases often recovering completely but severe cases having a high risk of mortality or long-term complications.
Intussusception is the telescoping of one part of the intestine into another part and is most common in children under 2 years old. The classic presentation includes intermittent abdominal pain, a sausage-shaped abdominal mass, and currant jelly stools. Ultrasound is the preferred diagnostic method and shows a target or "doughnut" sign. Treatment involves rehydration and antibiotics if infected. Non-operative reduction using hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure is usually attempted first but surgery may be needed if reduction fails or there are signs of perforation or necrosis. With prompt diagnosis and treatment, mortality from intussusception is less than 1%.
1) Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is brain injury caused by lack of oxygen and blood flow before, during, or after birth. It remains a serious condition that can cause death or long-term disabilities like cerebral palsy or intellectual impairment.
2) The document discusses the definition, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical features based on the Sarnat staging system, diagnosis using imaging and EEG, and treatment approaches for HIE including supportive care, perfusion management, anti-seizure medications, and therapeutic hypothermia.
3) The goal of treatment is to prevent further brain injury by maintaining appropriate oxygenation, blood pressure, glucose levels, and treating seizures
This document discusses intussusception, which is the telescoping of one segment of bowel into an adjacent segment. It provides definitions, etiology, types and pathology, signs and symptoms, differential diagnosis, workup, and treatment options for intussusception. The main points are that intussusception is usually idiopathic or caused by respiratory viruses in infants and young children, presenting with abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody stools. Diagnosis involves imaging like ultrasound or barium enema. Treatment options include non-surgical reduction techniques like hydrostatic or pneumatic reduction or surgical reduction through manual manipulation or resection.
Intestinal obstruction in children can have several causes including duodenal hematoma from blunt trauma or bleeding disorders, duplication cysts appearing as cystic masses on imaging, and Meckel's diverticulum which can cause bleeding or intussusception. Appendicitis presents with abdominal pain localized to the right lower quadrant. Henoch-Schonlein purpura causes small bowel vasculitis and presents with abdominal pain and rash. Imaging can identify thickened bowel loops, free fluid, and inflamed lymph nodes in appendicitis or bowel wall thickening in other causes of obstruction. Intussusception is a common cause in infants appearing as a soft tissue mass on x-ray or concentric rings on
This document provides information on intussusception in children. It discusses that intussusception is the telescoping of one segment of intestine into another and is most common in children under 1 year old. It can be idiopathic or have a pathological lead point such as Meckel's diverticulum. Diagnosis is usually made clinically or with ultrasound or contrast enema. Treatment involves non-operative reduction with hydrostatic or pneumatic enema, which has a high success rate. Surgery is needed if reduction fails or there are complications like perforation. Prognosis is generally excellent with prompt treatment.
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a birth defect that affects about 1 in 2,000-5,000 live births. It occurs when the diaphragm fails to fully form, allowing abdominal organs to migrate into the chest cavity and compress lung development. Untreated CDH has a high mortality rate of nearly 70%. Prenatal diagnosis by ultrasound is possible as early as the second trimester. Postnatal treatment may involve mechanical ventilation, nitric oxide, surfactant therapy, and in severe cases, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or surgery to repair the diaphragmatic defect. Long-term outcomes include risks of chronic lung disease, feeding difficulties, growth
This document discusses esophageal atresia, beginning with the embryology and classification. Esophageal atresia occurs in approximately 1 in 2500-3000 live births, and is slightly more common in males. It can be associated with other anomalies. The classification system describes types A through E, with type C being most common. Prenatal diagnosis is suggested by polyhydramnios and absent stomach bubble on ultrasound. Postnatal diagnosis involves x-rays and other imaging. Treatment involves surgically closing the tracheoesophageal fistula and reconnecting the esophagus.
Necrotizing enterocolitis is an acquired intestinal disease of unknown etiology that commonly affects premature infants. The main risk factors are prematurity, genetic factors, maternal health conditions like cocaine use, medications like indomethacin and dexamethasone, and certain enteral feeding practices. The pathogenesis involves an initial hypoxic-ischemic insult to the intestine combined with microbial factors and an excessive inflammatory response that can lead to necrosis of the intestinal tissue. Timely diagnosis and management are important for improving outcomes.
Necrotizing Enterocolitis: 21st Century ApplicationsDavid Mendez
This document is a presentation on necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) given by Dr. David Mendez. It discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of NEC. The presentation covers topics such as the different populations that can develop NEC, intestinal immaturity in preterm infants that makes them susceptible, the role of abnormal bacterial colonization and an exaggerated inflammatory response, and the importance of enteral feedings as a risk factor. Radiologic images are included to demonstrate findings like pneumatosis intestinalis. Overall, the presentation provides a comprehensive overview of NEC from epidemiology to pathology.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a common gastrointestinal emergency in neonates, especially preterm infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal mucosa associated with inflammation and infection. Risk factors include prematurity, enteral feeding, and intestinal ischemia. Clinically, NEC presents with abdominal and systemic signs. Diagnosis is based on clinical features and radiographic findings like pneumatosis intestinalis. Treatment involves cessation of feeding, antibiotics, and possible surgery for perforation or failure to improve. Prognosis depends on gestational age and severity of disease. Prevention focuses on exclusive breastfeeding when possible.
1. Necrotizing enterocolitis is an acquired intestinal disease of unknown etiology that commonly affects premature infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal tissue.
2. The greatest risk factor is prematurity, with risk inversely related to birth weight and gestational age. Other risk factors include genetic factors, indomethacin exposure, maternal cocaine use, G6PD deficiency, H2 blockers, antibiotics like co-amoxiclav, and conditions that decrease mesenteric blood flow.
3. While the exact cause is unknown, factors that may contribute to pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, ischemic injury from hypotension, and dysregulated intestinal immune response to bacterial colonization in premature infants.
NEC is a devastating condition affecting premature infants. It involves necrosis of the intestinal tissue. Key factors that increase risk are prematurity, enteral feeding, and circulatory instability in the intestines. Clinically, infants may experience apnea, feeding intolerance, and abdominal distension. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing infection and inflammation as well as imaging showing abnormalities in the intestines. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and sometimes surgery. Outcomes depend on severity but mortality can be over 40% in very premature infants and survivors face long-term complications.
1. Pneumonia is an inflammatory process in the lungs that can be caused by infection or other inflammatory conditions. It causes abnormalities in lung ventilation and gas exchange.
2. Congenital pneumonia specifically refers to pneumonia that is present at birth, usually caused by viral or bacterial infections transmitted from the mother. These infections can pose serious challenges to the immature newborn.
3. Pneumonia is a major cause of neonatal mortality worldwide. It requires prompt diagnosis and treatment including antibiotics, respiratory support, and careful management of cardiac and respiratory functions to prevent complications and ensure infant survival.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acquired intestinal disease of premature infants. It results from an interaction between intestinal ischemia and the host inflammatory response to enteral feeding. Risk factors include prematurity, aggressive enteral feeding, and abnormal gut colonization. Clinically, NEC progresses from nonspecific signs like temperature instability to severe abdominal distension and systemic involvement. Diagnosis relies on modified Bell's staging using clinical, laboratory, and radiographic findings. Treatment involves NPO, antibiotics, and supportive care. Surgery is indicated for perforation or failure to improve with medical management. Prognosis depends on gestational age and disease severity.
Definition of neonatal sepsis,type of neonatal sepsis ,early onset neonatal sepsis,late onset neonatal sepsis,Pathophysiology of neonatal sepsis,,sign and symptoms of neonatal sepsis, diagnosis of neonatal sepsis,management of neonatal sepsis, antibiotic used for neonatal sepsis,prevention of neonatal sepsis, prognosis of neonatal sepsis ,and A summary
This document discusses the embryology, diagnosis, and treatment of two congenital abdominal wall defects: gastroschisis and omphalocele.
Gastroschisis results from a failure of the lateral body folds to migrate, causing intestines to protrude through an abdominal wall defect to the right of the umbilicus. Prenatal ultrasound can diagnose it by 20 weeks. Treatment involves either primary closure or staged closure using a silo.
Omphalocele occurs when organs fail to return to the abdominal cavity during development, causing them to remain in the umbilical cord. It can involve liver and intestines protruding in a sac. Treatment options depend on size and may include immediate or staged
Gastroschisis is a birth defect where a hole in the abdominal wall allows intestines to protrude outside the baby's body. It occurs in about 0.1-0.3% of live births. The defect is usually on the right side of the belly button, with no protective sac covering the intestines. Treatment involves surgery to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity. Nursing care focuses on keeping the exposed intestines warm and sterile, managing fluids and nutrition, and monitoring for complications like infection or obstruction. Primary repair is preferred if the intestines will fit back inside, otherwise a staged repair using a synthetic sac is required.
Gastroschisis is a birth defect where the baby's intestines protrude outside of the abdominal wall near the umbilical cord. The cause is unknown but it occurs more often in younger mothers under 30. Diagnosis is usually made during physical examination after birth. Treatment involves surgery to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity and close the defect. With treatment, recovery is good though complications can include breathing issues or bowel death in rare cases.
INFANTILE HYPERTROPHIC PYLORIC STENOSISArkaprovo Roy
Intestinal hypertrophic pyloric stenosis is a condition characterized by thickening of the pyloric muscle which obstructs the gastric outlet. It typically affects infants between 2-8 weeks of age, with males being affected more often than females. Surgical pyloromyotomy is the treatment of choice and involves cutting the thickened pyloric muscle to relieve the obstruction. If diagnosed and treated early, the prognosis is excellent with complete resolution and no risk of recurrence after surgery.
This document provides an overview of duodenal atresia, including its definition, epidemiology, etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, management, complications, and differential diagnosis. Duodenal atresia is a congenital absence or closure of part of the duodenum due to defective fusion during development. It commonly presents after birth with vomiting, jaundice, and abdominal distension. Diagnosis is typically made through imaging findings like the "double bubble" sign on x-ray. Surgical management involves bypassing the blocked portion of duodenum through procedures like duodenoduodenostomy. Complications can include anastomotic issues or problems from associated anomalies.
Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: Lecture on HIESujit Shrestha
Clinically, more term babies suffered from hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) than premature babies. However, pathologically, more premature babies suffered from HIE than term babies. The main clinical manifestations of HIE are symptoms of consciousness, including excitation symptoms like hyperalertness, irritability, and seizures, or depressing symptoms like coma and hypotonia. Management of HIE focuses on monitoring, controlling seizures, general supportive care, and recent advances like therapeutic hypothermia. The prognosis depends on the severity of brain damage and treatment, with mild or moderate cases often recovering completely but severe cases having a high risk of mortality or long-term complications.
Intussusception is the telescoping of one part of the intestine into another part and is most common in children under 2 years old. The classic presentation includes intermittent abdominal pain, a sausage-shaped abdominal mass, and currant jelly stools. Ultrasound is the preferred diagnostic method and shows a target or "doughnut" sign. Treatment involves rehydration and antibiotics if infected. Non-operative reduction using hydrostatic or pneumatic pressure is usually attempted first but surgery may be needed if reduction fails or there are signs of perforation or necrosis. With prompt diagnosis and treatment, mortality from intussusception is less than 1%.
1) Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is brain injury caused by lack of oxygen and blood flow before, during, or after birth. It remains a serious condition that can cause death or long-term disabilities like cerebral palsy or intellectual impairment.
2) The document discusses the definition, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical features based on the Sarnat staging system, diagnosis using imaging and EEG, and treatment approaches for HIE including supportive care, perfusion management, anti-seizure medications, and therapeutic hypothermia.
3) The goal of treatment is to prevent further brain injury by maintaining appropriate oxygenation, blood pressure, glucose levels, and treating seizures
This document discusses intussusception, which is the telescoping of one segment of bowel into an adjacent segment. It provides definitions, etiology, types and pathology, signs and symptoms, differential diagnosis, workup, and treatment options for intussusception. The main points are that intussusception is usually idiopathic or caused by respiratory viruses in infants and young children, presenting with abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody stools. Diagnosis involves imaging like ultrasound or barium enema. Treatment options include non-surgical reduction techniques like hydrostatic or pneumatic reduction or surgical reduction through manual manipulation or resection.
Intestinal obstruction in children can have several causes including duodenal hematoma from blunt trauma or bleeding disorders, duplication cysts appearing as cystic masses on imaging, and Meckel's diverticulum which can cause bleeding or intussusception. Appendicitis presents with abdominal pain localized to the right lower quadrant. Henoch-Schonlein purpura causes small bowel vasculitis and presents with abdominal pain and rash. Imaging can identify thickened bowel loops, free fluid, and inflamed lymph nodes in appendicitis or bowel wall thickening in other causes of obstruction. Intussusception is a common cause in infants appearing as a soft tissue mass on x-ray or concentric rings on
This document provides information on intussusception in children. It discusses that intussusception is the telescoping of one segment of intestine into another and is most common in children under 1 year old. It can be idiopathic or have a pathological lead point such as Meckel's diverticulum. Diagnosis is usually made clinically or with ultrasound or contrast enema. Treatment involves non-operative reduction with hydrostatic or pneumatic enema, which has a high success rate. Surgery is needed if reduction fails or there are complications like perforation. Prognosis is generally excellent with prompt treatment.
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a birth defect that affects about 1 in 2,000-5,000 live births. It occurs when the diaphragm fails to fully form, allowing abdominal organs to migrate into the chest cavity and compress lung development. Untreated CDH has a high mortality rate of nearly 70%. Prenatal diagnosis by ultrasound is possible as early as the second trimester. Postnatal treatment may involve mechanical ventilation, nitric oxide, surfactant therapy, and in severe cases, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or surgery to repair the diaphragmatic defect. Long-term outcomes include risks of chronic lung disease, feeding difficulties, growth
This document discusses esophageal atresia, beginning with the embryology and classification. Esophageal atresia occurs in approximately 1 in 2500-3000 live births, and is slightly more common in males. It can be associated with other anomalies. The classification system describes types A through E, with type C being most common. Prenatal diagnosis is suggested by polyhydramnios and absent stomach bubble on ultrasound. Postnatal diagnosis involves x-rays and other imaging. Treatment involves surgically closing the tracheoesophageal fistula and reconnecting the esophagus.
Necrotizing enterocolitis is an acquired intestinal disease of unknown etiology that commonly affects premature infants. The main risk factors are prematurity, genetic factors, maternal health conditions like cocaine use, medications like indomethacin and dexamethasone, and certain enteral feeding practices. The pathogenesis involves an initial hypoxic-ischemic insult to the intestine combined with microbial factors and an excessive inflammatory response that can lead to necrosis of the intestinal tissue. Timely diagnosis and management are important for improving outcomes.
Necrotizing Enterocolitis: 21st Century ApplicationsDavid Mendez
This document is a presentation on necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) given by Dr. David Mendez. It discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of NEC. The presentation covers topics such as the different populations that can develop NEC, intestinal immaturity in preterm infants that makes them susceptible, the role of abnormal bacterial colonization and an exaggerated inflammatory response, and the importance of enteral feedings as a risk factor. Radiologic images are included to demonstrate findings like pneumatosis intestinalis. Overall, the presentation provides a comprehensive overview of NEC from epidemiology to pathology.
Neonatal sepsis is a clinical syndrome of bacterial infection in infants under 4 weeks old, which can be caused by a variety of bacteria and has risk factors related to the mother's health and birth conditions; it presents with non-specific symptoms affecting multiple organ systems and is diagnosed through blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures as well as indirect screening tests, being treated with antibiotics and supportive care while preventing hospital-acquired infections through proper hand hygiene.
This document discusses necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a life-threatening condition that affects premature infants. It causes necrosis of the intestinal wall. Risk factors include perinatal asphyxia, low Apgar scores, respiratory distress syndrome, congenital heart disease, and sepsis. The pathophysiology involves hypoxia, acidosis, hypoglycemia, decreased blood flow to the intestines, and invasion of the intestines by bacteria like E. coli and Klebsiella. Clinical presentation includes abdominal distension and bloody stools. Diagnosis involves blood tests, stool and abdominal imaging. Treatment consists of discontinuing oral feeding, IV fluids, antibiotics, and supportive care. Prevention focuses on exclusively feeding preterm
Hydroxyurea therapy increases fetal hemoglobin levels and reduces vaso-occlusive crises in sickle cell disease by inhibiting ribonucleotide reductase and altering cell adhesion molecules, with common side effects being leukopenia and neutropenia. Guidelines recommend hydroxyurea for patients with frequent pain episodes or a history of acute chest syndrome or anemia to reduce complications. Treatment involves monitoring blood counts and titrating dosage up or down based on response and side effects.
The document discusses coagulation disorders in neonates. It notes that the hemostatic mechanism differs in neonates, with decreased clotting factor activity and platelet function. Causes of bleeding include coagulation defects, platelet defects, fibrinolytic dysfunction, vascular causes, and miscellaneous issues. Evaluation involves history, physical exam, screening tests, and specific coagulation factor tests as needed. Treatment depends on the underlying cause, and may include vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma, whole blood transfusion, or specific clotting factor concentrates. Common disorders discussed include vitamin K deficiency, hemophilia A/B, von Willebrand disease, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Este documento trata sobre la enterocolitis necrotizante (NEC), una enfermedad inflamatoria severa del tracto digestivo que afecta principalmente a recién nacidos prematuros. Explica que la NEC se caracteriza por necrosis isquémica de la mucosa intestinal asociada a inflamación y colonización bacteriana anormal. Además, describe factores de riesgo como la inmadurez del sistema digestivo y del sistema inmune, y presenta las manifestaciones clínicas, el diagnóstico, el manejo y las complicaciones más com
The brain is formed of three main areas - the brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. The brain stem controls autonomic functions and sensory/motor pathways. The cerebellum is responsible for balance, coordination, and cognitive functions. The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres, with different functions localized to specific lobes and areas.
This document provides an overview of evaluating a child with dysmorphism or congenital anomalies. It discusses taking a thorough history, including pregnancy, birth, medical, family histories. A detailed physical exam evaluates growth, appearance, specific anomalies. Investigations may include cytogenetics, FISH, biochemical tests to identify genetic or metabolic causes. Major categories of anomalies are discussed - malformations caused by disruptions, deformations from mechanical forces, and syndromes caused by chromosomal or single gene disorders. Specific genetic syndromes are reviewed based on their characteristic physical findings. The document aims to guide clinicians in recognizing patterns of anomalies and determining the likely genetic or environmental etiology.
This document discusses various types of colorectal polyps and polyposis syndromes. It begins by defining different types of colorectal polyps based on size, attachment, cellular architecture, and histological appearance. Larger polyps have a higher likelihood of harboring cancer. The main polyposis syndromes discussed are familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, and juvenile polyposis syndrome. FAP is characterized by hundreds of colonic polyps and a 100% risk of colon cancer. Management involves prophylactic colectomy and surveillance of other organs for extracol
The document discusses pre-malignant polyps in the colon and rectum, including adenomatous polyps and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). It notes that adenomatous polyps are benign growths that can develop into colorectal cancer over 5-10 years if left untreated. FAP is a hereditary condition where hundreds of polyps develop by age 15-20, making colon cancer almost inevitable by age 40 without treatment. Treatment for FAP typically involves screening colonoscopies starting at age 10 and prophylactic colectomy (removal of the entire colon) by age 14 to prevent cancer.
The document discusses several minor complaints that may occur during pregnancy, including gingivitis, ptyalism, heartburn, constipation, hemorrhoids, varicosities, dyspnea, urinary symptoms, leucorrhea, leg cramps, paraethesia, and backache. For each complaint, the causes and recommended treatments are provided.
This document discusses genetic counseling and the prevention of genetic diseases. It describes genetic counseling as a process that helps people understand and adapt to the risks of genetic contributions to disease. The document outlines several methods for preventing genetic diseases, including genetic counseling, carrier detection in mothers, neonatal screening, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, and family education. It provides details on the roles of genetic counselors and geneticists in helping diagnose genetic conditions and counsel families.
This document discusses the musculoskeletal changes that occur during pregnancy and the perinatal period. It notes that pregnancy results in weight gain, a shifting center of gravity, and ligamentous laxity that impacts posture. Hormonal changes like increased relaxin soften connective tissues. This leads to joint hypermobility and decreased proprioception. Back pain can result from these changes, weight gain, and repetitive motions. The document also examines muscle, ligament, spinal and uterine changes that impact biomechanics during pregnancy.
The document summarizes several key anatomical changes that occur during pregnancy. The uterus expands significantly to accommodate the growing fetus, increasing 20 times in weight and size. The cervix closes to protect the fetus and later dilates during labor. Ligaments and joints relax to ease childbirth but can cause back pain. The center of gravity shifts forward, stressing the back. Skin pigmentation and weight gain also occur as the body accommodates the developing fetus over the course of pregnancy.
This document provides an overview of the approach to cough in children. It begins with background on cough and the cough reflex pathway. It then discusses classifications of cough based on duration, quality, and etiology. The document outlines the important components of history taking and physical examination for a child with cough. It recommends investigations such as chest X-ray, pulmonary function tests, and bronchoscopy if needed. The document concludes with guidelines for managing cough in children based on its underlying cause.
The document describes the major anatomical reference points and divisions of the nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. Within the central nervous system, it outlines the main regions including the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and covers the structures and functions of areas like the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and cerebellum.
This document provides an overview of 3 modules that cover neuroanatomy and neuropathology. Module 1 discusses neural development, including birth of the nervous system and formation of the neural tube. Module 2 addresses neuroanatomy, such as the autonomic nervous system, cranial and spinal nerves, CNS regional functions, and long CNS pathways. Module 3 examines lesions, including the effects of oxygen and cerebral blood flow, blood supply to the brain, strokes and tumors, and bleeds in the brain.
This document discusses different types of bleeding that can occur in early pregnancy, including threatened abortion, inevitable abortion, incomplete abortion, missed abortion, and septic abortion. It provides details on the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment for each type. The most common causes of early pregnancy bleeding are abortion, ectopic pregnancy, and various maternal infections or issues. Diagnosis involves examining symptoms, ultrasound findings, and checking for fetal heart tones or movement. Treatment depends on the type and severity, and may involve rest, medication, or surgical evacuation of the uterus.
This document provides an overview of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), including its epidemiology, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical features, management, outcomes, prevention and areas for further research. Some key points:
- NEC most commonly affects very preterm infants, with a mortality rate around 13% that increases with lower birth weight.
- Risk factors include prematurity, hypoxia, poor intestinal integrity, bacterial colonization and enteral feeding.
- Clinically it presents with abdominal distension, bloody stools and vomiting. Diagnosis is confirmed via x-ray showing pneumatosis or free air.
- Management involves stopping feeds, antibiotics, surgery for complications like perforation.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening condition that affects the intestines of premature infants. It results from necrosis of the intestinal tissue and can range from mild to severe. Risk factors include prematurity, formula feeding, and bacterial or viral infections. Symptoms may include abdominal distension, vomiting, and bloody stools. Diagnosis is confirmed through x-ray evidence of pneumatosis intestinalis or portal venous gas. Treatment involves gut rest, antibiotics, surgery for perforation or failure to improve. Despite advances, NEC remains a major cause of death in preterm neonates.
1) A premature neonate presented with vomiting after feeds and abdominal distention after previously tolerating feeding. Examination found high white blood cell count, thrombocytopenia, and dilated bowels on x-ray.
2) Necrotizing enterocolitis is a disease of premature infants characterized by ischemic necrosis of the intestinal mucosa caused by immature gut and immune system, enteral nutrition, and bacterial overgrowth. Risk factors include prematurity, formula feeding, and low birth weight.
3) Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, intravenous fluids and nutrition. Surgical intervention with resection may be needed for perforation or failure to improve. Outcomes depend on severity but include short bowel syndrome,
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening emergency of the gastrointestinal tract in the newborn period.
The most common gastrointestinal condition in premature neonates.
It is characterized by inflammation, ischemia, and permeability of the neonatal bowel wall to bacteria.
It is potentially life-threatening with significant associated morbidity.
The disease is characterized by various degrees of mucosal or transmural necrosis of the intestine.
Necrotizing enterocolitis is a disease that primarily affects premature infants, causing necrosis of the bowel. It has a multifactorial pathogenesis involving intestinal ischemia, impaired host defenses, enteral feeding, and bacterial colonization in the immature gut. Clinical features include feeding intolerance and abdominal symptoms. Diagnosis is supported by imaging findings like pneumatosis intestinalis. Management involves bowel rest, antibiotics, monitoring for complications. Outcomes range from complete recovery to death depending on severity.
This document provides information about necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) for physicians. It covers the objectives, risk factors, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of NEC. NEC is a disease that primarily affects premature infants and causes necrosis of the intestinal tissue. The main risk factors are prematurity, formula feeding and circulatory instability. Clinically, infants may present with feeding intolerance and abdominal distension. Diagnosis involves radiological evidence of pneumatosis intestinalis or portal venous gas. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics and surgery for severe or perforated cases. Outcomes depend on severity but mortality can be over 50% for cases involving perforation.
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening gastrointestinal disease that mainly affects premature infants. It involves infection and inflammation of the intestines that can lead to tissue death. The exact causes are unknown but factors like prematurity, formula-feeding, and bacterial colonization may play a role. Symptoms include abdominal distention, bloody stools, and poor feeding. Staging of NEC ranges from mild abdominal symptoms to full thickness intestinal necrosis with systemic involvement. Treatment depends on stage but may include antibiotics, surgery, and in severe cases, bowel resection.
This document provides an overview of gastrointestinal complications of cystic fibrosis (CF), including distal intestinal obstruction syndrome, meconium ileus, gastroesophageal reflux disease, malignancies, pancreatic insufficiency and cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. It discusses the genetics, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of these conditions. Key points include that CF is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, pancreatic insufficiency affects 85% of patients, and annual screening for cystic fibrosis-related diabetes is recommended beginning at age 10.
This document discusses several acquired disorders of the stomach in children that can be seen on radiology exams. It describes disorders as inflammatory (e.g. peptic ulcer disease), tumors/tumor-like conditions, or having an underlying congenital predisposition (e.g. gastric volvulus). Specific conditions discussed in detail include spontaneous gastric perforation, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, hypertrophic gastropathy (Ménétrier disease), and chronic granulomatous disease. Imaging findings and treatment approaches are provided for each condition.
This document provides an overview of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), including its definition, risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. NEC is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in very low birth weight neonates. Key points include that prematurity is the greatest risk factor, enteral feeding can increase risk but is also necessary for treatment, and abnormal gut microbiota and immature intestinal barriers may allow pathogenic bacteria to translocate and cause inflammation. Diagnosis involves imaging and lab tests. Treatment involves bowel rest, antibiotics, and potentially surgery for severe cases.
1- Understand the pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in chronic diarrhea.
2. Classification the causes of chronic diarrhea in resource-rich and resource-limited countries
3- Know how to evaluate a child who has chronic diarrhea
4. Know the therapies for the many causes of chronic diarrhea
Neonatal sepsis is an infection occurring in the first month of life that can involve the bloodstream, meninges, lungs, or other tissues. It is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in newborns, especially preterm and low birth weight infants. Early onset sepsis occurs within 72 hours of life and is usually acquired around the time of delivery, while late onset sepsis occurs after 72 hours and is often hospital-acquired. Common clinical features include respiratory distress, apnea, fever or hypothermia, and feeding intolerance. Diagnosis involves a sepsis screen of blood tests and cultures, and management requires prompt administration of antibiotics along with supportive care. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications and save lives of
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a disease that affects the intestines of premature infants. It ranges in severity from mild feeding intolerance to total intestinal necrosis and death. Risk factors include prematurity, aggressive feeding advancement, bacterial overgrowth, and conditions that decrease intestinal blood flow. Symptoms include abdominal distension, bloody stools, and pneumatosis intestinalis visible on x-ray. Treatment depends on the stage but involves stopping feeding, intravenous fluids, antibiotics, and sometimes surgery for severe or advanced cases. Outcomes range from full recovery to death, with long term complications including intestinal strictures and short bowel syndrome. Preventive measures focus on slow advancement of feedings and minimizing other risk factors.
Presentation on small intestine disorder RakhiYadav53
This document discusses several disorders of the small intestine, including inflammation, infection, malabsorption, and obstruction or perforation. It covers the anatomy, physiology and risk factors. Specific conditions like Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are examined in terms of their causes, symptoms, diagnostic tests and medical or surgical management. Nursing assessments and care plans are also outlined to address needs like pain management, nutrition, and anxiety reduction. A clinical study abstract analyzes symptoms, etiologies and diagnostic methods for small intestine diseases.
Laboratory investigations in inflammatory bowel disease deepakrsanghavi
Calprotectin is a marker for inflammation that can be measured in stool samples. Elevated levels of calprotectin indicate inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. Calprotectin testing can help distinguish between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), as well as determine disease activity and monitor response to treatment for IBD. A calprotectin level below 50 μg/g indicates no inflammation, while a level over 200 μg/g suggests active organic disease requiring further evaluation. Calprotectin testing could reduce unnecessary colonoscopies by 67% in adults and 35% in children, but may delay diagnosis in 6% of cases due to false negatives.
Kelainan Kongenital pada Sistem Gastrointestinal, Hepatobilier,.pptxikaseptyarini2
The document discusses several congenital gastrointestinal and hepatobiliary conditions including esophageal atresia, biliary atresia, anorectal malformations, Meckel's diverticulum, and Hirschsprung disease. It covers the epidemiology, clinical findings, diagnostic evaluations, differential diagnoses, management, and complications for each condition. The goal for many of these conditions is early surgical intervention to restore organ continuity or drainage.
Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity. There are several types depending on cause, including primary, secondary, and tertiary peritonitis. Primary peritonitis includes spontaneous bacterial peritonitis which occurs in those with cirrhosis and ascites. Secondary peritonitis results from infection spreading from a ruptured organ. Tertiary peritonitis is persistent or recurrent infection after source control of secondary peritonitis. Diagnosis involves ascitic fluid analysis and treatment involves antibiotics.
The document discusses Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), including Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn's Disease, providing details on their etiology, clinical manifestations, investigations, medical and surgical management, and cancer risk. IBD is characterized by idiopathic intestinal inflammation that has genetic and environmental risk factors and can involve any part of the gastrointestinal tract. Management involves a multidisciplinary approach including medications, nutrition, and surgery.
- Acute inflammatory upper airway obstruction is usually caused by croup (89% of cases), epiglottitis (8% of cases), or less commonly non-bacterial tracheitis (2% of cases).
- Croup is a viral infection causing subglottic swelling and narrowing of the airway, while epiglottitis is a potentially life-threatening bacterial infection of the epiglottis.
- Management of croup involves cool mist, racemic epinephrine, steroids, and intubation if needed; epiglottitis requires rapid diagnosis and treatment due to risk of complete airway obstruction.
This case presentation summarizes a 4-year-old female patient with type I spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) who presented with vomiting, difficulty breathing, and becoming non-responsive. SMA is a genetic neuromuscular disease that causes muscle atrophy and weakness. The patient was diagnosed with SMA at 9 months old and was admitted for aspiration pneumonia. Despite resuscitation efforts, the patient's condition deteriorated and she did not respond to treatment.
This document discusses coarctation of the aorta, a congenital heart defect where the aorta is narrowed or constricted. It accounts for 5-8% of congenital heart defects. Coarctation can occur isolated or with other defects like bicuspid aortic valve or ventricular septal defect. Clinical presentation depends on age - infants may present with heart failure while older children and adults often present with hypertension. Imaging like chest x-ray and echocardiogram are used for diagnosis. Treatment involves surgery to repair the coarctation.
Dr. S. Ismat Bukhari's document discusses G6PD deficiency, the most common enzyme deficiency worldwide. It affects over 200 million individuals, predominantly in areas like the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. G6PD deficiency is caused by mutations in the G6PD gene and results in inadequate protection of red blood cells from oxidative stress. This can lead to hemolysis, jaundice, and anemia, especially after exposure to oxidizing drugs or foods. The document outlines the inheritance, clinical manifestations, treatment, and screening of G6PD deficiency.
This document discusses hypertension in newborns and children. It begins by defining hypertension in neonates and outlining objectives for identifying and characterizing it. Common causes of neonatal hypertension are then reviewed, including renovascular, renal parenchymal, cardiac, endocrine, and iatrogenic factors. The evaluation, management, and long-term outcomes of hypertension in newborns are also described. The document then discusses hypertension in children, defining pediatric hypertension and outlining an approach to diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment. Risk factors and management of pre-hypertensive and stages I and II hypertension in children are also reviewed.
This document summarizes renal tubular acidosis (RTA), a condition caused by defects in the kidney's ability to reabsorb bicarbonate or excrete hydrogen ions. It describes the different types of RTA - proximal RTA caused by impaired bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule, distal RTA caused by impaired acidification in the distal tubule, and rare combined proximal and distal RTA. The clinical features and causes of each type are discussed. Inherited forms are linked to mutations in genes encoding acid-base transporters. Acquired forms can result from conditions like autoimmune diseases.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
Travel Clinic Cardiff: Health Advice for International TravelersNX Healthcare
Travel Clinic Cardiff offers comprehensive travel health services, including vaccinations, travel advice, and preventive care for international travelers. Our expert team ensures you are well-prepared and protected for your journey, providing personalized consultations tailored to your destination. Conveniently located in Cardiff, we help you travel with confidence and peace of mind. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
Computer in pharmaceutical research and development-Mpharm(Pharmaceutics)MuskanShingari
Statistics- Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting numerical data to assist in making more effective decisions.
A statistics is a measure which is used to estimate the population parameter
Parameters-It is used to describe the properties of an entire population.
Examples-Measures of central tendency Dispersion, Variance, Standard Deviation (SD), Absolute Error, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Eigen Value
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
Visit Us: https://drdeepikashomeopathy.com/service/irregular-periods-treatment/
Summer is a time for fun in the sun, but the heat and humidity can also wreak havoc on your skin. From itchy rashes to unwanted pigmentation, several skin conditions become more prevalent during these warmer months.
2. • Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an inflammatory disease of
the intestine affecting 5% to 10% of premature infants born
weighing less than 1,500 g, with an associated mortality rate
of 10% to 50%.
• Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is the most common intestinal
emergency in the preterm infant, occurring in 1% to 5% of
patients admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
and in 1 to 3 per 1,000 live births.
3. Pathophysiology
• In simple terms, the condition can be considered an aberrant
response of the immature gut and immune system in the
setting of enteral nutrition and the presence of bacteria.
4. FEEDING
• The introduction of enteral nutrition is a key component in the
pathogenesis of NEC.
• Unfed infants rarely develop the disease; indeed, 90% to 95% of infants
who develop NEC have been exposed to recent enteral volume
advancement. Enteral nutrition may predispose to NEC by disrupting
mucosal integrity, reducing gut motility, or altering gastrointestinal blood
flow.
• Appropriate feeding advancements have not been elucidated for preterm
infants, but it appears that aggressively increasing feedings increases the
risk of NEC.
• The type of feeding also is critical. Human milk appears to decrease the
risk of NEC compared with formula. The osmolality of formulas is
important, with those that have high osmotic loads being associated with
NEC.
5. BACTERIA/INFECTION
• Considerable attention has been directed to the relationship of intestinal
microbes and the pathogenesis of NEC.
• Bacteremia occurs in up to 35% of cases of NEC. It is unclear whether
bacteria play a primary role in the pathogenesis of NEC or bacterial
translocation occurs due to an already compromised intestinal barrier.
• No pathogen is found consistently in NEC.
• On the other hand, bacteria also play a primary role in normal intestinal
homeostasis.
• In the newborn period, the gut becomes colonized with E coli and
streptococci from the maternal vaginal flora.
6. • Bacteria reported to be associated with NEC include Escherichia coli,
Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Clostridium,
coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus sp.
• Gram-positive organisms are more common in stages I and II disease, and
enteric organisms predominate in more severe cases.
• Viral pathogens, namely, rotavirus, coronavirus, and enteroviruses also
have been described in association with NEC.
• The type of nutrition that a baby receives appears to have an impact on
subsequent colonization patterns, with formula-fed infants showing an
early increase in Enterobacteriaceae colonization and the guts of breast-
fed infants colonized early with Enterobacteriaceae and Bifidobacterium.
7. IMMATURE GUT
• An immature gastrointestinal tract and immune response
predispose preterm infants to NEC.
• The preterm intestine demonstrates increased permeability to high
molecular weight molecules, decreased motility, and decreased
mucus production compared with the gastrointestinal tract of more
mature infants.
• Preterm infants show an inappropriate cellular and humoral
response to intestinal pathogens.
• The immature gastrointestinal tract shows impaired circulatory
dynamics in response to an enteral volume load.
8. Role of Hypoxia-Ischemia
• The relationship between hypoxicischemic events and NEC is
controversial.
• Hypoxia-ischemia was long believed to play a prominent role in the
pathogenesis of NEC, but much of the supporting evidence was anecdotal.
• Unfortunately, this has been one of the major reasons for neonatologists
withholding enteral feeding from babies who have experienced low or
even borderline low Apgar scores.
• The late occurrence of NEC in preterm infants who do not have preceding
evidence of ischemia argues against hypoxiaischemia as a primary
causative agent in the development of NEC.
• However, histologic examination does reveal coagulation necrosis,
suggesting the occurrence of ischemia, perhaps as a secondary event in
the pathogenesis of NEC.
9. • Several clinical situations in the preterm infant that increase
the risk of NEC are associated with compromised intestinal
blood flow.
• For example, patients who have an active patent ductus
arteriosus (PDA) associated with a large left-to-right shunt
have decreased gut perfusion and appear to have an
increased risk for NEC.
10. • Furthermore, patients treated with indomethacin to close the
PDA have an increased risk for NEC, presumably due to the
effect of the drug on the intestinal circulation.
• Finally, maternal cocaine abuse has been associated with an
increased incidence of NEC in several retrospective cohort
studies, and animal data suggest that intestinal blood flow is
reduced with cocaine exposure.
11. • Several mucosal enzymes and gastrointestinal hormones are
suppressed or deficient in preterm babies
• Many aspects of the intestinal host defense system are
deficient or dysfunctional in the preterm infant, including the
secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA) response, neutrophil
function, macrophage activation, cytokine production and
function, and activity of intestinal defensins.
• Furthermore, evidence suggests that autoregulation of the
microcirculation differs in preterm babies and the physiologic
mechanism in the prevention of bacterial overgrowth, is
dysfunctional as well.
13. Clinical findings
SPECIFIC GASTROINTESTINAL SIGNS:
• Early presenting signs:
– abdominal distention (70% to 98%)
– feeding intolerance with increased gastric residuals (70%)
– emesis (70%)
– gross blood per rectum (25% to 63%)
– occult gastrointestinal bleeding (22% to 59%)
– diarrhea (4% to 26%).
• As the disease progresses, abdominal findings become more severe.
Patients may develop marked abdominal distention due to increased
intestinal dilation and ascites. Abdominal wall erythema may be caused by
necrotic bowel loops abutting the thin abdominal wall.
• When the intestine is perforated, the abdomen may develop a bluish cast
as intraperitoneal meconium is seen through the abdominal wall.
14. LABORATORY FINDINGS
• A patient who has NEC can present with an abnormal white blood cell count.
• It may be elevated, but more commonly it is depressed.
• A severely low white blood cell count (,1.5 3 109/L [,1,500 cells/cu mm]) has been reported in
37% of cases.
• It results from both decreased production and increased utilization of leukocytes.
• Thrombocytopenia is also common, seen in up to 87% of patients.
• In addition, patients may develop other coagulation abnormalities, including prolongation of
prothrombin time and hypofibrinogenemia.
• Glucose instability (hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia), metabolic acidosis, and electrolyte
imbalance may occur.
• Some patients have elevated C-reactive protein levels.
• Because no unique infectious agents have been incriminated in NEC, bacteriologic and fungal
cultures may prove helpful but not conclusive.
15. A plain antero-posterior radiograph
demonstrating pneumatosis.
Initial radiographic evaluation may
reveal a fixed, dilated loop of bowel.
The characteristic radiologic finding is
pneumatosis intestinalis, which is
believed to be intraluminal gas
produced by bacterial fermentation.
Pneumatosis intestinalis is found in
70% to 80% of confirmed cases of
NEC.
Portal venous gas or pneumo-
peritoneum may be seen with severe
cases.
16. A left lateral decubitus radiograph demonstrating
free air (arrow) between the body wall and the liver.
A dependent radiographic view is required to visualize this small
amount of free air.
17. • Some authors have used other modes of imaging to diagnose NEC and
assist in the decision for surgical intervention.
• The use of ultrasonography, contrast radiography, and even magnetic
resonance imaging has been reported anecdotally, but their utility has not
been established.
• These studies never should delay otherwise indicated medical or surgical
management.
18. Photomicrograph of intestine with NEC.
The cystic areas below the severely
disrupted mucosal layer are pockets
of hydrogen gas that present
radiographically as pneumatosis.
HISTOLOGY/GROSS PATHOLOGY
Histologically, NEC is characterized by
mucosal edema, inflammation,
hemorrhage, coagulation necrosis, and
mucosal ulceration.
The terminal ileum and proximal
colon are the sections of bowel affected
most commonly, although more extensive
disease is possible from the stomach to
the rectum.
19. • Staging of NEC is according to a modification of the system
first proposed by Bell and colleagues in 1978.
• The staging system is based on clinical, laboratory, and
radiologic findings.
• Stage I signs are nonspecific and can be due to a number of
problems, including sepsis and simple feeding intolerance.
• Stage II and III criteria are more specific for NEC: pneumatosis
intestinalis, pneumoperitoneum, grossly bloody stools, DIC,
and metabolic acidosis.
20.
21. Differential diagnosis
• Sepsis with ileus, in both term and preterm patients, can mimic
NEC.
• Both present with systemic signs of infection and abdominal
distention.
• Fortunately, the treatment for both conditions is similar: bowel rest,
antibiotic administration, and supportive care.
• Isolated gastric perforation can result in pneumo-peritoneum.
• Gastric perforation may be associated with administration of
indomethacin or corticosteroids.
• Iatrogenic gastric perforation from feeding tubes occurs rarely.
• Patients who have Hirschsprung enterocolitis or severe
gastroenteritis may present with pneumatosis.
23. Medical management
• Most patients who have NEC are treated non-operatively.
• The maxim of ABCs (airway, breathing, and circulation) holds in these
infants. Most require some mechanical ventilatory support.
• Peripheral arterial access should be established for accurate
measurement of systemic blood pressure and arterial blood gases.
• Many patients will be hypovolemic and require fluid resuscitation and
correction of acid base imbalance. The acidemia in NEC is often mixed,
with a respiratory component from hypoventilation as well as a metabolic
contribution from hypoperfusion.
• If there is evidence of coagulopathy, administration of platelets, fresh-
frozen plasma, or cryoprecipitate may be indicated.
24. • Sodium bicarbonate should be given in severe metabolic acidosis.
• Dopamine and epinephrine infusions may be necessary when
hypoperfusion does not respond to fluid administration.
• After obtaining blood cultures, broad-spectrum antimicrobial
therapy appropriate to cover bowel flora should be initiated.
• Ampicillin and gentamicin are possible choices, but the common
use of these antibiotics in the NICU typically results in the
development of resistant organisms.
• Antibiotic therapy may be guided by patterns of resistance in the
individual unit.
• In addition, VLBW infants are at risk for bacteremia from
coagulase-negative Staphylococcus.
25. • Accordingly, empiric treatment with vancomycin and a
third-generation cephalosporin is appropriate.
• Because anaerobic flora can be acquired as early as 1
week of age, a third agent to cover these organisms
may be warranted.
• The severity of the disease and the need for long-term
coverage with broad-spectrum antibiotics places
patients who have NEC at risk for fungal sepsis.
• Amphotericin, administered either empirically or
following proven culture, may be necessary later in the
course of treatment.
26. • Discontinuation of enteral feeding and gastric
decompression with a large-bore (10 or 12 French) orogastric
tube should be facilitated.
• Although fraught with imprecision, serial measurements of
the abdominal girth are warranted.
• More important is serial examination by the same examiner.
27. • Antimicrobial therapy and bowel rest should be continued for 7 to 14 days,
depending on the severity of the episode.
• At the end of this period, it is important to increase feedings gradually
over many days.
• Some patients who appear to respond successfully to medical treatment
will manifest increased gastric residuals, abdominal distention, and bilious
emesis as enteral feeds are advanced.
28. • This scenario suggests the development of intestinal strictures.
Strictures occur in areas of the intestine that suffered ischemia
without full-thickness necrosis.
• These areas heal by scarring, and contraction of the scar leads to
stricture. Strictures may occur anywhere in the intestine, but the
most common site is at the junction of the descending and sigmoid
colon. Radiographic studies reveal evidence of a partial bowel
obstruction, with intestinal dilatation on the anteroposterior view
and air-fluid levels on the dependent view.
• High suspicion of stricture warrants bowel rest until 6 weeks after
the initial diagnosis of NEC to allow complete fibrous healing.
• A contrast enema should be performed at the completion of this
period.
• If results of a lower gastrointestinal study are normal, an upper
gastrointestinal contrast study is indicated. If a stricture is
identified, it should be resected surgically.
29. Surgical management
• Even with aggressive and appropriate medical management, 34% to 50% of
patients who have NEC require surgical intervention.
• The operation of choice in patients weighing greater than 1,500 g is laparotomy
with resection of frankly necrotic bowel. In some cases, there is a well-defined
segment of dead bowel, with the remainder of the intestine appearing normal.
• In others, disease may be patchy, involving multiple segments of the intestine, or
large areas of intestine may be of questionable viability.
• The surgeon must resect all of the necrotic intestine yet avoid removing intestine
that ultimately could prove viable. A portion of viable intestine is used to create an
• enterostomy and mucous fistula. Once evidence of bowel function returns, enteral
feeds are introduced slowly.
• The period of time to bowel reanastomosis varies; 6 weeks is the minimal waiting
period.
30. • Primary resection and anastomosis of an isolated perforation has
been reported anecdotally, but this procedure is not widely
accepted.
• When multiple segments of bowel are affected, the surgeon
traditionally is forced to create multiple stomas.
• An alternative technique is the so-called “patch, drain, and wait”
approach. Each perforation is sutured closed, Penrose drains are
placed in the lower abdominal quadrant, and parenteral nutrition is
continued.
• For patients who have pan-necrosis with extensive involvement, the
appropriate surgical management is unclear.
• Resection of affected bowel results in severe short bowel
syndrome. Because of the poor outcomes seen in these patients,
some surgeons support the practice of foregoing any treatment.
31. • For patients weighing fewer than 1,500 g, the best operative management
is not known.
• Historically, the surgical management of VLBW neonates who had
perforated NEC was the same as that for larger babies: laparotomy,
resection, and stoma creation.
• However, applying classic surgical techniques in these very small babies
may increase mortality and morbidity.
32. Long term outcome
• In addition to post-NEC intestinal strictures, patients who undergo surgical
intervention for NEC have a high probability of long-term adverse
outcomes.
• The most common intestinal complication is short bowel syndrome (25%).
• In this condition, the amount of remaining intestine is not sufficient to
provide adequate absorption of enteral nutrients and fluid. Because the
bowel is not functional, the patient is dependent on parenteral nutrition.
33. • As many as 50% of patients who survive NEC develop
neurodevelopmental delay.
• Although NEC is not believed to be directly causative, any
condition that results in prolonged hospitalization has been
shown to place neonates at risk.
34. Predictive markers
• Individual markers that are elevated at presentation of clinical symptoms of NEC
that may be useful for supporting the diagnosis include serum amyloid A (SAA),
anaphylatoxin (C5a), urinary intestinal fatty acid–binding protein (I-FABP), claudin-
3, stool platelet-activating factor (PAF), and calprotectin.
• A decreased plasma level of inter-a-inhibitory protein (IaIp) appears to be a
reliable marker for the diagnosis of NEC.
• Serial measurement of C-reactive protein (CRP), SAA, and fecal calprotectin (FC) all
appear to be helpful in monitoring the response to therapy.
• Last, CRP, C5a, and I-FABP may be variably helpful in predicting severity of disease
and overall prognosis for poor outcomes (eg, death or perforation) related to NEC.
• Interestingly, plasma citrulline may predict dependence on total parenteral
nutrition (TPN) as a sign of morbidity related to NEC
35. Serum Amyloid A
• SAA is a rapidly acting acute-phase protein produced by hepatocytes in
response to activated monocytes/ macrophages.
• SAA has also been found to be elevated in infants who have NEC and levels
decrease rapidly after the initial peak with the resolution of disease.
• However, SAA levels remained elevated on days 3 and 7 of diagnosis in
patients who died, suggesting that persistent elevations in SAA may
predict higher mortality.
36. Anaphylatoxin
• The complement activation product, C5a is a strong
chemo-attractant peptide that helps to recruit
inflammatory cells and activates phagocytic cells.
• It has been reported as a contributing factor leading to
mesenteric ischemia/ reperfusion injury.
• C5a levels in the serum at the time of diagnosis were
more accurate than SAA, CRP, and interleukin-6 in
predicting severity of disease, for example, death.
37. Intestinal Fatty Acid–Binding Protein
• I-FABP is a cytosolic water-soluble protein released from mature
enterocytes in the small and large intestine when cell membrane
integrity is compromised.
• Because of its small size, I-FABP passes the glomerular filter and can
be detected in the urine quickly.
• Urinary I-FABP levels were higher in infants who had NEC versus
those infants without NEC, with specificity of 90% and a sensitivity
of 93% with a cutoff value of 2.20 pg/nmol creatinine.
• I-FABP may be useful as a predictor of disease severity in NEC.
38. Claudin-3
• Another marker specific to intestinal integrity loss is claudin-
3, which is an important tight junction protein.
• Urinary claudin-3 with a specificity of 81% and a sensitivity of
71%.
• However, this marker was not helpful as a predictor of
severity of NEC.
39. Platelet-Activating Factor
• PAF is an endogenous phospholipid mediator synthesized from plasma membrane
precursors, and is involved in many physiologic processes largely through local
paracrine effect.
• Levels of PAF are higher in infants with stage II and III NEC versus those without,
and levels steadily increased with progression of disease and returned to baseline
after recovery.
• In addition, fecal PAF has been shown to be elevated days before the clinical
appearance of NEC in human neonates.
• However, like other nonspecific markers of inflammation, PAF can be elevated in
conditions other than NEC, such as perinatal asphyxia, bronchopulmonary
dysplasia, persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn, and neonatal
sepsis, all common co-diagnoses in the population at risk for NEC.
• Nonetheless, because of the difficulty in measuring this nonprotein mediator, it is
unlikely that clinical laboratories will consider this suitable for routine use.
40. Calprotectin
• Calprotectin is a heterodimeric peptide that binds calcium and zinc and constitutes
up to 60% of the cytosolic content of neutrophils.
• In intestinal inflammation, neutrophils are sequestered into the gut wall.
• Calprotectin is extremely resistant to degradation by fecal bacteria, which allows
calprotectin to be reliably measured in fecal matter as a marker for gut wall
inflammation.
• FC levels have been useful for monitoring exacerbations of inflammatory bowel
disease in children.
• Levels did differ between well and sick infants based on their clinical condition,
with values greater than 350 mg/g stool noted in infants with signs of
gastrointestinal injury, that is, bloody stool or bowel perforation.
• FC levels appeared to decrease after the initiation of treatment, which may allow it
to be helpful in monitoring response to therapy.
• FC levels were not related to disease severity. In addition, fecal samples are not
always easily obtainable in infants who have NEC.
41. Inter a Inhibitor Proteins
• IaIps are serine protease inhibitors that play an important regulatory role
in systemic inflammation and are also an acute-phase reactant.
• IaIp downregulates endogenous serine proteases that can contribute to
epithelial cell necrosis and possibly to NEC.
• Normally, these proteins are found in high concentrations in human
plasma.
• In newborns and adults who have sepsis, a significant decrease in IaIp has
been demonstrated, and levels correlate with disease severity and
frequency of mortality.
• IaIp levels are also decreased in disease states such as neonatal sepsis, so
this marker may not be helpful in distinguishing infants who have
gastrointestinal ileus secondary to sepsis from infants who have NEC.
42. C-Reactive Protein
• CRP is perhaps one of the best studied and most widely used serological biomarkers used in
various diseases.
• CRP is an acute-phase reactant that increases in the serum in the face of inflammation from
infection or tissue injury.
• CRP may be helpful at the time of diagnosis for differentiating benign gastrointestinal
processes such as ileus from more severe NEC.
• However, an elevated CRP level may not be seen until 12 to 24 hours after clinical symptoms
because of a variable lag period, which makes it less helpful for making early diagnoses.
• However, CRP levels do decrease as the disease process is improved, so it may be helpful as a
marker of response to therapy.
• CRP is not helpful in distinguishing NEC alone from other inflammatory processes, or ileus
due to other infectious processes. Mean peak CRP value did not differ between infants with
stage II and stage III NEC, although time to reach peak CRP was shorter in NEC stage III versus
stage II.
• Persistently elevated levels may suggest the need to evaluate for complications or ongoing
disease that may indicate the need for surgical intervention.
43. Citrulline
• Citrulline is a nonprotein amino acid produced in the small intestine and serves as a
precursor of arginine, which is important in protein synthesis and nitric oxide production,
among other things.
• Historically, serum citrulline levels in various intestinal diseases have been shown to correlate
with functional intestinal mass. Specifically, in children who have short-bowel syndrome,
citrulline levels have been a fair marker of residual bowel length and TPN dependence.
• In infants who develop NEC, mean citrulline levels were lower than in controls at a
comparable day after birth and were reduced within 48 hours of symptoms, with an optimal
cutoff value of 17.75 mmol/L providing a sensitivity of 76% and a specificity of 87%.
• Although citrulline levels may not be helpful for early diagnosis based on a variable lag time,
further studies are needed to examine whether an acute decrease in serially measured levels
in healthy preterm infants may be used as an early indicator of compromised intestinal
function before the development of symptoms of NEC.
• Citrulline level at presentation of NEC correlated inversely with the duration of parenteral
nutrition needed.
45. Probiotics
• The interest in the use of probiotics for the prevention of NEC arose after several
observations:
(1) that genera such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are lower in hospitalized
infants than healthy term infants
(2) that probiotic bacteria are useful in other settings of gastrointestinal disease
(3) that bifidobacteria supplementation could reduce the risk of disease and
decrease the gut proliferation of Gram-negative enteric pathogens in a neonatal
rat model of NEC
(4) that probiotic bacteria downregulate the intestinal inflammatory response in a
variety of animal and cell culture models.
• More recent studies have demonstrated that probiotic bacterial products alone,
such as TLR ligands or CpG segments (areas of the genome with high
concentrations of cytosine linked to guanine by phosphodiester bonds, which
often are near gene promoter regions) of bacterial DNA, can activate anti-
inflammatory pathways via TLR9 binding, and may lessen the inflammatory
response seen in NEC.
• In addition, prebiotics, or nutrients that enhance the growth of beneficial
intestinal microbes, such as galactose, fructose, and lactulose, are being studied.
46. Human Milk
• Infants fed human milk, as opposed to formula-fed infants, have a lower
incidence of and less severe NEC.
• Infants fed more human milk than formula (>50%) versus infants fed more
formula than human milk (<50% human milk) had a threefold decreased
risk of NEC.
• However, mothers of premature infants often have difficulty in producing
enough milk to meet their infants’ needs.
47. Epidermal Growth Factor
• Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been shown to have a role in gut
maturation and function, so it has been considered for its preventive
potential in NEC.
• Infants who have NEC, as well as premature infants, have lower levels of
salivary EGF.
50. Infection control
• Good hygiene practice (eg, handwashing) has been
demonstrated to be effective in controlling outbreaks of NEC.
51. Trophic Feedings
• Minimal enteral nutrition, also referred to as trophic, trickle, or
hypocaloric feedings, is the term applied to topical nutrition of the small
intestine administered in the first week or two after birth.
• During this time, enteral feedings are limited for several days, with most
nutrition provided parenterally. After this initial period, enteral feedings
are advanced judiciously.
• Infants exposed to minimal enteral feedings have not shown an increased
risk of NEC compared with infants kept NPO. This “gut priming” has been
shown to increase gut motility, reduce the incidence of cholestasis, and
improve tolerance of subsequent feedings.
• There is increasing evidence that not introducing at least small amounts of
food to the gastrointestinal tract results in atrophy and predisposes the
intestine to inflammation and likely translocation of bacteria.
52. Human Milk
• Enteral feeding with human milk has been shown to decrease the severity
of NEC compared with formula feeding.
• Fresh human milk contains many immunoprotective factors, such as
immunoglobulins (Igs), lactoferrin, neutrophils, lymphocytes, lysozyme,
and PAF acetylhydrolase (which inhibits PAF).
• Human milk also is believed to promote intestinal colonization with
Lactobacillus.
53. Antenatal Steroids
• Antenatal steroids are not administered to expectant mothers as
prophylaxis against NEC, but when administered to prevent
respiratory distress syndrome, antenatal steroids decrease the risk
for NEC.
• The mechanism by which steroids protect against NEC is unclear but
probably involves a decrease in inflammatory mediators, increased
activity of enzymes involved in digestion and absorption, and
potentially maturation of the microvillus membrane.
• A protective effect of postnatal glucocorticoids has not been
demonstrated clearly, although their long-term use to treat chronic
lung disease has been associated with adverse neuro-
developmental effects.
54. Oral Antibiotics
• Oral antibiotics, primarily aminoglycosides, clearly reduce the
incidence of NEC and death due to NEC.
• However, concerns regarding the emergence of bacterial
resistance have rendered oral antibiotic prophylaxis an
inappropriate intervention.
55. Probiotics
• The human gut is normally colonized with commensal organisms such as
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus sp.
• The widespread use of broadspectrum antibiotics in the NICU disrupts
development of normal microflora and allows for growth of pathogenic
organisms.
• Promising recent studies have shown that probiotic supplementation has a
positive impact on the incidence of NEC in preterm infants.
• Further study is necessary to determine which probiotic formulation
provides the maximal protection.
• Recent evidence suggests that probiotic bacteria may not need to be alive
to impart a positive effect; even bacterial products, such as TLR ligands or
CpG segments of DNA, may be effective in ameliorating inflammation in
the intestine.
56. Immunoglobulins
• Another possible preventive measure is oral supplementation
with Igs.
• A recent Cochrane review, which examined five studies on Ig
supplementation, found no significant difference in NEC or
death from NEC with IgG or IgA preparations.
57. Acidification
• Preterm infants have been shown to have
decreased gastric acid production in response to
enteral feeding.
• An acid environment is an important barrier to
many pathogenic microorganisms.
• A lower incidence of NEC is demonstrated in
infants whose enteral feedings were
supplemented with acid to keep the pH between
3 and 4.
58. Glutamine
• Glutamine has been shown to be important in
immunity and intestinal function.
• A couple of single-center studies in human neonates
have shown decreased sepsis and improved intestinal
function with glutamine supplementation.
• Other studies did not show a decrease in sepsis, but
the trial of enteral supplementation suggested a lower
prevalence of intraventricular hemorrhage and
periventricular leukomalacia.
59. Arginine
• Arginine is a substrate for nitric oxide, which demonstrates
vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory properties.
• Arginine also is a precursor for other amino acids that are
important in intestinal homeostasis, including glutamine and
glutamate.
• Although initial results suggest that arginine supplementation
may play a role in protecting against NEC.
61. Strictures
• Infants who survive episodes of NEC are at risk for serious
complications, the most common of which is stricture
formation.
• Up to 39% of affected patients develop stricture(s).
• Strictures may form as soon as 2 weeks following acute
disease. Most strictures are colonic.
• Occasionally, partial strictures may present with recurring
episodes of sepsis and feeding intolerance, which should be
ruled out with appropriate radiologic contrast studies.
62. Malabsorption/Short Gut
• Although short gut syndrome and malabsorption are expected when
significant amounts of bowel need to be resected, malabsorption also
occurs in cases of NEC that do not require resection.
• This may be due to persistent mucosal injury from an ongoing
inflammatory process.
63. Complications Associated with Total Parenteral Nutrition
• Most infants who have confirmed NEC require central catheterization for
prolonged parenteral nutrition.
• The catheters employed for total parenteral nutrition are associated with
significant risks of infection, vessel perforation, and iatrogenic pleural and
pericardial effusions.
• The use of parenteral nutrition and NPO status also place the patient at
risk for cholestasis and delay in intestinal maturation.
64. Recurrence
• As many as 6% of infants who develop NEC experience
disease recurrence.
65. Extraintestinal Complications
• Infants who recover from an episode of NEC have been shown to be at
increased risk of developing extraintestinal complications, such as sepsis,
bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and neurodevelopmental delay.
• A recent retrospective study found that infants who had experienced an
episode of NEC are at increased risk for microcephaly, short stature, and
serious developmental delay.
• An increased incidence of spastic diplegia and hemiplegia suggests
periventricular damage.
66. References
• The Pathophysiology of Necrotizing Enterocolitis
Michael S. Caplan, MD, and Tamas Jilling, MD
NeoReviews Vol.2 No.5 May 2001 e103
• Necrotizing Enterocolitis: Predictive Markers and Preventive Strategies
Alison Chu, MD, Joseph R. Hageman, MD, Michael S. Caplan, MD
NeoReviews Vol.14 No.3 March 2013 e113
• Clinical Management of Necrotizing Enterocolitis
Reed A. Dimmitt and R. Lawrence Moss
NeoReviews 2001;2;e110