This document introduces the natural sciences as an area of knowledge. It defines natural sciences as knowledge of observable objects and processes in nature, such as biology and physics, as distinguished from abstract sciences like mathematics. It describes the scientific method as involving observation, hypothesis formation, prediction, and experimental testing to confirm or falsify hypotheses. Personal knowledge and imagination play a role in scientific discovery alongside shared experimentation and observation. Questions are raised about whether scientific knowledge can be considered absolutely true or reliable given its tentative nature and reliance on indirect observation tools.

1. AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESAOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCES
Lesson 1: Introducing the Nature andLesson 1: Introducing the Nature and
Methodology of the Natural SciencesMethodology of the Natural Sciences
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
 Understand what the term ‘Understand what the term ‘NaturalNatural
SciencesSciences’ includes and excludes’ includes and excludes
 Understand what is meantUnderstand what is meant
by the ‘by the ‘scientific methodscientific method’’
and what are theand what are the
implications for knowledgeimplications for knowledge
claims in the naturalclaims in the natural
sciencessciences

2. What are the Natural Sciences?What are the Natural Sciences?
 Natural sciences is defined as “knowledgeNatural sciences is defined as “knowledge
of objects or processes observable inof objects or processes observable in
nature, as biology or physics, asnature, as biology or physics, as
distinguished from the abstract ordistinguished from the abstract or
theoretical sciences, as mathematics ortheoretical sciences, as mathematics or
philosophy”philosophy” (Dictionary Reference, 2012)
 List some examples of knowledge claims
from your IB diploma studies

3. The achievements ofThe achievements of
the natural sciencesthe natural sciences
 The natural sciences areThe natural sciences are
considered to be one of theconsidered to be one of the
greatest human achievementsgreatest human achievements
 This is because of their unparalleled capacity to bothThis is because of their unparalleled capacity to both
explainexplain and make preciseand make precise predictions;predictions;
 For theFor the technological advancementstechnological advancements that result fromthat result from
its applications;its applications;
 For the way in which theirFor the way in which their overall influenceoverall influence has comehas come
to increasingly permeate modern life.to increasingly permeate modern life.
 Any discussion about ‘truth’ or ‘reliable knowledge’Any discussion about ‘truth’ or ‘reliable knowledge’
will probably lead to science as providing this kind ofwill probably lead to science as providing this kind of
knowledge.knowledge.

4. So whatSo what dodo we think of most whenwe think of most when
considering ‘the sciences’?considering ‘the sciences’?
ForFor Task 1Task 1, complete the following activities,, complete the following activities,
allowing 20 seconds for each:allowing 20 seconds for each:
Draw a hand
Draw a house
Draw one thing that you think represents
mathematics
Draw one thing that you think represents the
sciences
List as many words as you can that you think
describe a scientist
Bonus challenge: draw a scientist

5. Task 1 – follow upTask 1 – follow up
 Compare your drawings of a hand and a houseCompare your drawings of a hand and a house
with others in the class. Are they similar? If so,with others in the class. Are they similar? If so,
why do you think this is so?why do you think this is so?
 Compare your drawings for mathematics and theCompare your drawings for mathematics and the
sciences. Do some images or symbols recur?sciences. Do some images or symbols recur?
What characteristic features of these subjects areWhat characteristic features of these subjects are
reflected?reflected?
 Share your words and final drawing. WhatShare your words and final drawing. What
impressions of the scientist emerge? How wouldimpressions of the scientist emerge? How would
you find out whether your images of the scientistyou find out whether your images of the scientist
are accurate or not?are accurate or not?

6. In TOK we examine theIn TOK we examine the naturenature of science andof science and notnot
just the subjectjust the subject knowledgeknowledge that dominates thethat dominates the
school curriculumschool curriculum
 However, the focus clearly remains on theHowever, the focus clearly remains on the three corethree core
sciences;sciences;
 BiologyBiology
The study of living organisms and life processes.The study of living organisms and life processes.
 ChemistryChemistry
The study of the composition, structure andThe study of the composition, structure and
properties of matter and its reactions.properties of matter and its reactions.
 PhysicsPhysics
The study of matter and its motion, of space andThe study of matter and its motion, of space and
time, forces and energy.time, forces and energy.

7. What is the scientific method?What is the scientific method?
““The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that itThe most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it
is comprehensible.”is comprehensible.” Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIFz_-KzURY
Scientists search the physical world for regular and
recurring relationships to describe and explain.
The search for these patterns ranges from the
subatomic world of neutrinos to the entire cosmos
and from the study of inanimate crystals to the study
of living cells.
The scientific method is a highly structured process
that is based around observations, reasoning and
experiments that can be repeated and checked
independently by others

8. Task 2 – The Scientific Card GameTask 2 – The Scientific Card Game
Aim: to figure out the rule!Aim: to figure out the rule!
First, divide the class into groups of 4 or 5, with
each group receiving a pile of 7 or 8 playing cards.
Each group is, in turn, to offer a card which is
either accepted or rejected according to the rule.
A group can guess what the rule is if everyone
agrees!
.

9. Task 2 – continuedTask 2 – continued
After the game, analyse the following:After the game, analyse the following:
the way you first spotted a patternthe way you first spotted a pattern
the way you guessed a possible rulethe way you guessed a possible rule
the way you tested the rulethe way you tested the rule
A specific process is operating here:A specific process is operating here:
Pattern spotting: this links to empiricalPattern spotting: this links to empirical
observation.observation.
Guessing the rule: this links to the formationGuessing the rule: this links to the formation
of an inductive hypothesisof an inductive hypothesis
Testing the rule: this links to confirming orTesting the rule: this links to confirming or
falsifying the hypothesisfalsifying the hypothesis
Which way of knowing is being used here?

10. 1.
Experimental
data or
Observation
2.
Inductive
hypothesis
3. Prediction
and
experimental
test
4. Theory
confirmed and
tentatively
accepted
5. Theory is
falsified
(proven false)
and discarded
Task 3 – The Scientific MethodTask 3 – The Scientific Method
Construct a flow diagram in your TOK journal thatConstruct a flow diagram in your TOK journal that
illustrates this process using key words such as:illustrates this process using key words such as:
theorytheory,, experimental dataexperimental data,, predictionprediction,, inductiveinductive
hypothesishypothesis, etc, etc

11. Task 3 - continuedTask 3 - continued
What are the similarities and differences between theWhat are the similarities and differences between the
following two flow charts. Compare these charts tofollowing two flow charts. Compare these charts to
yours.yours.

12. ‘‘Personal’ and ‘Shared’ knowledgePersonal’ and ‘Shared’ knowledge
in the natural sciencesin the natural sciences
American physicistAmerican physicist Richard FeynmanRichard Feynman wrote:wrote:
““But what is theBut what is the source of knowledgesource of knowledge? Where do the? Where do the
lawslaws that are to be tested come from?that are to be tested come from? ExperimentExperiment
itself helps to produce these laws, in the sense thatitself helps to produce these laws, in the sense that
it gives us hints. But also needed isit gives us hints. But also needed is imaginationimagination toto
createcreate from these hints the great generalisations –from these hints the great generalisations –
to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strangeto guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange
patterns beneath them all, and then to experimentpatterns beneath them all, and then to experiment
to check again whether we have made the rightto check again whether we have made the right
guess.” (guess.” (Alchin 2006:17)Alchin 2006:17)

13. How significantHow significant
is personalis personal
knowledge inknowledge in
science, asscience, as
compared tocompared to
other subjectsother subjects
you study?you study?

14. Task 4 – an exampleTask 4 – an example
Read about the following two claims in Alchin, NRead about the following two claims in Alchin, N
(2006), Theory of Knowledge, p.17-18(2006), Theory of Knowledge, p.17-18
1) The Earth is flat1) The Earth is flat
2) The Earth is round2) The Earth is round
Make notes in your ToK journal in response to the following:Make notes in your ToK journal in response to the following:
1 Why did ‘claim 1’ become a reasonable scientific belief?1 Why did ‘claim 1’ become a reasonable scientific belief?
2 What does this indicate about science and truth?2 What does this indicate about science and truth?
3 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?3 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?
4 Why is imagination a necessary component of ‘claim 2’?4 Why is imagination a necessary component of ‘claim 2’?
5 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?5 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?
6 What aspects of this claim could have been falsified (proven6 What aspects of this claim could have been falsified (proven
false)?false)?
What other examples of individual contributions
to scientific knowledge can you think of?

15. PlenaryPlenary
What are the natural sciences and what examplesWhat are the natural sciences and what examples
of scientific knowledge claims can you think of?of scientific knowledge claims can you think of?
What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of the
ways of knowing are being used?
What does it mean to ‘test’ or ‘falsify’ scientific
knowledge claims?
What is the role of personal and shared knowledge
in the natural sciences?

16. HomeworkHomework
Science and PseudoscienceScience and Pseudoscience
What isWhat is ‘pseudoscience’‘pseudoscience’ and how is it different fromand how is it different from
‘science’‘science’? How could it be recognised?? How could it be recognised?
Outline the thinking that underlines ONE of the
following and evaluate its essential nature as
science or pseudoscience:
Acupuncture
Astrology
Crystology
Feng Shui
Graphology
Homeopathy
Phrenology

17. AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESAOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCES
Lesson 2: Understanding andLesson 2: Understanding and
Evaluating the Scientific MethodEvaluating the Scientific Method
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
 Understand further the way in whichUnderstand further the way in which
hypotheses arehypotheses are ‘confirmed’‘confirmed’ oror ‘falsified’‘falsified’,,
in the context of examplesin the context of examples
 To consider knowledge questions thatTo consider knowledge questions that
can be raised about the natural sciencescan be raised about the natural sciences

18. 1.
Experimental
data or
Observation
2.
Inductive
hypothesis
3. Prediction
and
experimental
test
4. Theory
confirmed and
tentatively
accepted
5. Theory is
falsified
(proven false)
and discarded
What is theWhat is the Scientific Method?Scientific Method?
WhichWhich Way of KnowingWay of Knowing is being used?is being used?

19. How significantHow significant
is personalis personal
knowledge inknowledge in
science, asscience, as
compared tocompared to
other subjectsother subjects
you study?you study?

20. Task 1 – Science and PseudoscienceTask 1 – Science and Pseudoscience
What isWhat is ‘pseudocscience’‘pseudocscience’ and how is it differentand how is it different
fromfrom ‘science’‘science’? How could it be recognised?? How could it be recognised?
Present an outline of the thinking that underlines
ONE of the following and evaluate its essential
nature as science or pseudoscience:
Acupuncture
Astrology
Crystology
Feng Shui
Graphology
Homeopathy
Phrenology

21. Task 1 – follow upTask 1 – follow up
The question here is whether these practices useThe question here is whether these practices use
the ‘scientific method’ to accumulate knowledgethe ‘scientific method’ to accumulate knowledge
To what extent do these practices rely on
experiments, observations, data, hypotheses,
predictions, falsification?
To what extent do these practices appear less
scientific because their subject matter is more
complex? What difference is there between
studying atoms or plant and the subject matter
of each of these disciplines?

22. KnowledgeKnowledge
QuestionsQuestions

23. Knowledge question 1:Knowledge question 1:
Is scientific knowledge reliable?Is scientific knowledge reliable?
““The notion of absolute truth is shown to be in poorThe notion of absolute truth is shown to be in poor
correspondence with the actual development ofcorrespondence with the actual development of
science. Scientific truths are better regarded asscience. Scientific truths are better regarded as
relationships holding in some limited domain”relationships holding in some limited domain”
(David Bohm, Physicist)(David Bohm, Physicist)
It is crucial to appreciate that a scientific claim can never
be proven experimentally to be correct, although it can
be proven to be wrong. It is commonly assumed
(mistakenly) that scientific laws have been proven and
therefore are absolute truth. It is always possible,
however, that it will be shown to be incomplete or even
totally wrong using the inductive method.

24. Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aluqsayffv4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aluqsayffv4
What did Einstein mean
when he said ‘Truth is
what stands the test of
time’?
The longer a theory has resisted falsification, the
more confident we are that it is right. In this sense,
it is perhaps more meaningful to consider claims as
being ‘scientifically valid’ as opposed to being ‘true’.
Watch the following clip, then discuss whether
knowledge in the natural sciences can be said to be
as reliable as knowledge in other subjects such as
mathematics:

25. Knowledge question 2:Knowledge question 2:
Can we rely on our sensoryCan we rely on our sensory
observations to verify scientific truths?observations to verify scientific truths?
How many passes, in total, did the white-How many passes, in total, did the white-
shirted team make?shirted team make?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo
How many gorillas did you see?
What implications are there for the
scientific method of producing knowledge?
How might scientists respond?

26. To what extent is modern scienceTo what extent is modern science
dependent on indirect observations?dependent on indirect observations?
How could using instruments such as Parkes radio telescope be
deceptive? What other instruments could be deceptive? What
are the implications for scientific knowledge?

27. Knowledge question 3:Knowledge question 3:
Should scientific progress be limited byShould scientific progress be limited by
ethical judgments?ethical judgments?

28. Task 2: The Modern
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, Prometheus,
whose name means “foresight” was a
Titan known for his wily intelligence,
who stole fire from Zeus and gave it to
mortals for their use. As punishment,
Prometheus was chained to a rock
where his regenerating liver was eaten
daily by a vulture. His myth has been
treated by a number of ancient sources,
crediting or blaming him for playing a
pivotal role in the early history of
humankind.
As ‘a modern Prometheus’, explore ethical
judgments that might affect the following
controversial scientific endeavours:
Stem cell research Prometheus released by
Heracles

29. Plenary
What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of
the ways of knowing are being used?
What is the difference between science and
pseudoscience?
What is scientific ‘truth’ and what questions
can be raised?
What answers are there to these knowledge
questions and what are your conclusions
about the validity of scientific knowledge,
compared to other subjects such as
mathematics?

30. HomeworkHomework
Review the ppt and notes you have made
about the natural sciences as an area of
knowledge, reading chapter 6 from
‘Decoding Theory of Knowledge’ to
supplement these where relevant.
Try to ask your science teacher a
knowledge question over the next week!