Learning involves changes in the nervous system and brain that are caused by experience and allow us to change our behavior. There are four main types of learning: perceptual learning, associative/S-R learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Memory involves storing information over time in both explicit and implicit forms through various brain regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and synaptic plasticity are thought to be key mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation at the neuronal level.
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی حافظه توسط دکتر فائزه دهقان ارائه شده است. برای دریافت اطلاعات بیشتر در مورد این کارگاه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
https://farvardin-group.com
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
MEMORY
By JOYSRI ROY
M.SC APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
SEMESTER 1
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
Definition
Our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain.It is the sum total of what we remember, and gives us the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as to build relationships.
In more Physiological and neurological term, memory is, at its simplest , a set of encoded neural connections in the brain.
MEMORY PROCESS
1)Encoding
2)Storage
3)Retrieval
NEURO-BIOLOGY OF ENCODING
Process of laying down a memory begin with attention, which is regulated by thalamus and fontal lobe, in which a memorable event causes neurons to fire more frequently making the experience more intense and increasing the likelihood that the event is encoded as a memory. Emotion increases attention in the amygdala. The perceived sensation are decoded in the various sensory areas of the cortex. Then combined in the hippocampus into one single experience. Hippocampus analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long- term memory.
TYPES OF MEMORY
1)Sensory memory
2)Short term memory
3) Long term memory
MODELS OF MEMORY
1) ALLEN D. BADDELEY’S MODEL
2)ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MODEL (1968)
3)LEVELS OF PROCESSING ( CRAIK AND LOCKHART)
ZEIGARNIK EFFECT
Bluma Zeigarnik , a Russian Psychologist, compared memory for tasks that were successfully completed and those which were not. She interpreted the work and did not allow them to finish it. Interrupted tasks were remembered more frequently than those which were completed.
Dutta and Kanungo gave a new interpretations to this effect.
The intensity of emotiom arousal by the completed tasks or the interrupted task is the critical factor. Any aivity that gives to strong emotion, be it pleasant or unpleasant , is remembered better than ordinary everyday actions
METHODS OF STUDYING MEMORY
1)FREE RECALL
2)RECOGNITION
3)PRIMIMG
FORGETTING
1)TRACE DECAY THEORY
2)DISPLACEMENT FROM STM
3)LACK OF CONSOLIDATION
4)RETRIEVAL FAILURE
5)INTERFERENCE THEORY
6)AMNESIA
TYPES OF MNEMONIC DEVICES
7MemoryRevised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of N.docxsodhi3
7
Memory
Revised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Chapter Overview
Studying memory
Building memories: Encoding
Memory storage
Retrieval: Getting information out
Forgetting
Memory construction errors
Improving memory
Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Information-processing model
Compares human memory to a computer’s operation
4
Stages in Information-Processing Model
Encoding
Getting information into the memory system
Storage
Retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
Getting information out of memory storage
Information-Processing Model: Stages in Forming Memories
Recording to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory
Processing information into short-term memory, where it is encoded through rehearsal
Moving information into long-term memory for later retrieval
Sensory memory: Immediate and very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-term memory: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
6
Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form.
For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing).
And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer to call that stage working memory.
7
Working Memory
Newer understanding of short-term memory
Includes the conscious and active processing of:
Incoming information
Information retrieved from long-term memory
Working memory is more efficient when individuals focus on one task at a time, without distractions.
8
Want to try to see how good your working memory is?
In Class Demonstration
Two-Track Memory System
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
Retention of learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness
Formed via automatic processing
Explicit (declarative) memory
Retention of facts and personal events that can be consciously retrieved
Formed via effortful processing
Building Memories
Automatic processing and implicit memories
Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
Effortful processing and explicit memories
Explicit memories become automatic with experience and practice.
This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY.
Your two-track mind processes information efficiently via parallel processing, which involves processing of many aspects of a problem at the same time.
This method is the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.
13
Sensory.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی حافظه توسط دکتر فائزه دهقان ارائه شده است. برای دریافت اطلاعات بیشتر در مورد این کارگاه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
https://farvardin-group.com
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
MEMORY
By JOYSRI ROY
M.SC APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
SEMESTER 1
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
Definition
Our ability to encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain.It is the sum total of what we remember, and gives us the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as to build relationships.
In more Physiological and neurological term, memory is, at its simplest , a set of encoded neural connections in the brain.
MEMORY PROCESS
1)Encoding
2)Storage
3)Retrieval
NEURO-BIOLOGY OF ENCODING
Process of laying down a memory begin with attention, which is regulated by thalamus and fontal lobe, in which a memorable event causes neurons to fire more frequently making the experience more intense and increasing the likelihood that the event is encoded as a memory. Emotion increases attention in the amygdala. The perceived sensation are decoded in the various sensory areas of the cortex. Then combined in the hippocampus into one single experience. Hippocampus analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long- term memory.
TYPES OF MEMORY
1)Sensory memory
2)Short term memory
3) Long term memory
MODELS OF MEMORY
1) ALLEN D. BADDELEY’S MODEL
2)ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MODEL (1968)
3)LEVELS OF PROCESSING ( CRAIK AND LOCKHART)
ZEIGARNIK EFFECT
Bluma Zeigarnik , a Russian Psychologist, compared memory for tasks that were successfully completed and those which were not. She interpreted the work and did not allow them to finish it. Interrupted tasks were remembered more frequently than those which were completed.
Dutta and Kanungo gave a new interpretations to this effect.
The intensity of emotiom arousal by the completed tasks or the interrupted task is the critical factor. Any aivity that gives to strong emotion, be it pleasant or unpleasant , is remembered better than ordinary everyday actions
METHODS OF STUDYING MEMORY
1)FREE RECALL
2)RECOGNITION
3)PRIMIMG
FORGETTING
1)TRACE DECAY THEORY
2)DISPLACEMENT FROM STM
3)LACK OF CONSOLIDATION
4)RETRIEVAL FAILURE
5)INTERFERENCE THEORY
6)AMNESIA
TYPES OF MNEMONIC DEVICES
7MemoryRevised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of N.docxsodhi3
7
Memory
Revised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Chapter Overview
Studying memory
Building memories: Encoding
Memory storage
Retrieval: Getting information out
Forgetting
Memory construction errors
Improving memory
Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Information-processing model
Compares human memory to a computer’s operation
4
Stages in Information-Processing Model
Encoding
Getting information into the memory system
Storage
Retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
Getting information out of memory storage
Information-Processing Model: Stages in Forming Memories
Recording to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory
Processing information into short-term memory, where it is encoded through rehearsal
Moving information into long-term memory for later retrieval
Sensory memory: Immediate and very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
Long-term memory: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
6
Modified Three-Stage Processing Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form.
For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing).
And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer to call that stage working memory.
7
Working Memory
Newer understanding of short-term memory
Includes the conscious and active processing of:
Incoming information
Information retrieved from long-term memory
Working memory is more efficient when individuals focus on one task at a time, without distractions.
8
Want to try to see how good your working memory is?
In Class Demonstration
Two-Track Memory System
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
Retention of learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness
Formed via automatic processing
Explicit (declarative) memory
Retention of facts and personal events that can be consciously retrieved
Formed via effortful processing
Building Memories
Automatic processing and implicit memories
Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations.
Effortful processing and explicit memories
Explicit memories become automatic with experience and practice.
This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY.
Your two-track mind processes information efficiently via parallel processing, which involves processing of many aspects of a problem at the same time.
This method is the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.
13
Sensory.
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Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
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ACCORDING TO apic.org,
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ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
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VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
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2. “Learning is essential to human
behavior. From the classroom to
the trading floor to ordering at a
restaurant, our ability to make
good decisions is shaped by how
we learn from experience.”
-Daphna Shohamy
Biology of Learning and Memory
3. 13 Learning and Memory
What is the nature of learning?
Learning is the process by
which experiences change
our nervous system, and
hence our behavior.
We call those changes
memories.
4. 13 Overview
Four basic forms of learning:
• Perceptual learning
• S-R (associative) learning
• Motor learning
• Relational learning
6. • Neurobiologists
generally believed that
memories were
generally not the result
of new neuron
production
• 1894: Santiago Ramon
y Cajal thought
memories were formed
by strengthening
neuron connections
• 1949: Hebbian theory
13 Early Learning Theory
8. • Changes in the structure or biochemistry
of synapses that alter their effects on
postsynaptic neurons
• Long-term Potentiation: long term
increase in the excitability of a neuron to a
particular synaptic input caused by
repeated high-frequency activity of that
input.
• Long-term Depression: produces a long-
lasting decrease in synaptic strength.
13 Synaptic Plasticity
9. • Associative long-term potentiation:
weak synapses are strengthened by the
action of strong synapses
• NMDA receptor: A specialized ionotropic
glutamate receptor that controls a calcium
channel that is normally blocked by Mg2+
ions; involved in long-term potentiation.
• AMPA receptor: An ionotropic glutamate
receptor that controls a sodium channel;
when open, it produces EPSPs.
13 Synaptic Plasticity
10. 13 Perceptual Learning
• Involves learning to recognize things, not what
to do when they are present
• Can involve learning to recognize entirely new
stimuli, or it can involve learning to recognize
changes or variations in familiar stimuli
• We learn that particular stimuli are found in
particular locations or contexts or in the
presence of other stimuli. We can even learn
and remember particular episodes: sequences
of events taking place at a particular time and
place.
11. • Thalamus LGN -> primary visual cortex ->
extrastriate cortex
• Objects are recognized visually by circuits
of neurons in the visual association cortex.
• Damage to the inferior temporal cortex
leaves vision unaffected but causes
inability to discriminate visual stimuli
• Ventral = what, Dorsal = where
13 Perceptual Learning
12. • Involves changes in synaptic connections
in the visual association cortex , creating
new neural circuits
• When exposed to the same stimulus, the
same circuits become active
13 Perceptual Learning
15. • MT/MST: region of the visual association
cortex that perceives movement
• Memory contains information about
previously seen movements
• Brain saves sensory information for future
reference
13 Perceptual Learning
16. • The memory for a stimulus or an event
that lasts for a short while
• Involves activating established neural
circuits even after stimulus is gone
• Delayed matching-to-sample task: A
task that requires the subject to indicate
which of several stimuli has just been
perceived.
13 Short-term Memory
18. • Involves several brain regions
• Prefrontal cortex manipulates and
organizes information to be remembered
• PFC devises strategies for retrieval and
monitors the outcome of those processes
• Successful remembering requires: filtering
out irrelevant info and maintaining relevant
info
13 Short-term Memory
20. 13 S-R Learning
Hebb’s rule: Neurons that fire together, wire together.
S-R Learning is to learn to perform a particular
behavior when a particular stimulus is present
21. Ivan Pavlov
While studying salivation in
dogs, Pavlov “stumbled”
upon the principles of
classical conditioning.
13 S-R Learning
22. In classical (Pavlovian) conditioning, a neutral
stimulus is paired with another stimulus that elicits a
response.
Eventually, the neutral stimulus by itself will elicit the
response.
13 S-R Learning
26. B.F. Skinner
13 S-R Learning
He was a firm believer
that any human action
was the result of the
consequences of that
same action.
27. In instrumental
(operant) conditioning,
an association is made
between:
• Behavior (the
instrumental response)
• The consequences of
the behavior (the
reward).
13 S-R Learning
29. The Reinforcement System
13 S-R Learning
Detect the presence of
a reinforcement
stimulus.
Strengthen the neural
connections between
the discriminative
stimulus and the
instrumental response.
33. • Iconic memories are the briefest
memories and store sensory impressions
that only last a few seconds.
• Short-term memories (STMs) usually last
only for up to 30 seconds or throughout
rehearsal.
Short-term memory is also known as
working memory.
13 Memory
I work out!
34. • An intermediate-term memory (ITM)
outlasts a STM, but is not permanent.
• Long-term memories (LTMs) last for
days to years.
13 Memory
35. 13 Relational Learning
Henry Molaison suffered
from severe epilepsy.
Because of seizures, a
decision was made to
remove the amygdala, the
hippocampus, and some
cortex.
Patient H.M.
36. • Retrograde amnesia
is the loss of memories
formed before onset of
amnesia and is not
uncommon after brain
trauma.
• Anterograde amnesia
is the inability to form
memories after onset
of amnesia.
13 Relational Learning
H.M. had normal short-term
memory but had severe
anterograde amnesia.
37.
38. Dissociation of explicit (declarative) memory, which
was impaired vs.
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory, which was fine
13 Relational Learning
39. • Declarative memory
deals with what—facts
and information acquired
through learning that can
be stated or described.
(Things we are aware that
are learned.)
• Nondeclarative
(procedural) memory
deals with how—shown by
performance rather than
conscious recollection.
13 Memory
Two kinds of long-term memory: