The document discusses heat treatment processes and phase diagrams. It covers concepts like phase, Gibbs phase rule, equilibrium phase diagrams for pure metals and alloys, the iron-carbon phase diagram showing various phases, critical temperatures, and reactions on the iron-carbon diagram. It also defines heat treatment as a process to change properties without changing composition, and lists purposes like improving machinability, magnetic/electrical properties, and resistance to wear, heat and corrosion. Key heat treatment processes discussed include annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering, nitriding, cyaniding, carburizing, and case hardening.
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T DTE Karnataka C-20 syllabus THANMAY JS
Materials for Engineering [20ME11T]
Unit III- Notes
NON FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
3.1 Copper and its alloys
3.1.1 Brasses
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.1.2 Bronzes-
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2 Aluminum and its alloys
3.2.1 Duralumin
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.2 Y-alloy
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.3 Magnalium
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.2 Hindalium
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.3 Nickel and its alloys
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.4 Bearing materials
3.4.1 White metal (Sn based)
3.4.2 Aluminum Bronzes
3.4.3 Self-lubricating Bearings
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T Unit IVTHANMAY JS
4.1 Polymeric materials
4.1.1 Characteristics of Polymer
4.1.2 Types of Polymer
4.1.3 Uses of Polymers
4.2 Classification of Polymers on basis of Thermal behavior
4.2.1Thermo plastics
4.2.2 Thermosetting plastics
4.2.3 Properties of Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
4.2.4 Difference between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastic
4.3 Ceramics
4.3.1 Types of Ceramics
4.3.2 Properties of Ceramics
4.3.3 Applications of Ceramics
4.4 Composite materials
4.4.1 Classification of Composite Materials
4.4.2 Properties of Composite Materials
4.4.3 Applications of Composites
4.5 Advanced engineering materials
Example 1: Biomaterials
Example 2: Nano-materials
Example 3: Smart materials
4.6 Designation and coding of important non-metallic materials as per BIS
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T DTE Karnataka C-20 syllabus THANMAY JS
Unit 1 Class notes
1.1 Classification of Engineering Material
1.2 Structureofmetal-unit cell,BCC,FCCandHCP
structures
1.3 Types of microscopes
1.4 Specimen preparation procedure
1.5 Properties of metals-Physical-mechanical-
Thermal properties
This document discusses different types of stainless steel and tool steel. It describes three main types of stainless steel based on their microstructure: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel is the most widely used and contains chromium and nickel. It is non-magnetic, corrosion resistant, and can be welded or formed. Ferritic stainless steel contains 12-25% chromium and less than 0.1% carbon. It is magnetic and has good strength and corrosion resistance. Martensitic stainless steel contains 12-25% chromium and 0.1-1.5% carbon. It is heat treated to produce martensite for good hardness and corrosion resistance. Tool steel is an
Material Science and Engineering
Ferrous Materials
Classification of Steel
Low carbon steel
Medium Carbon steel
High carbon steel
Structural steel
stainless steel
Applications
Introduction to Mechanical Metallurgy (Our course project)Rishabh Gupta
The document summarizes key concepts in materials science and engineering. It discusses:
1. The importance of selecting high quality materials for better product design and performance.
2. The four main components in materials science - processing, structure, properties, and performance - and how they interrelate.
3. The main classes of materials - metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, and elastomers - and some of their key characteristics.
4. Crystal structures of metals and how they are classified based on atomic packing efficiency. Factors that determine a material's density are also covered.
Unit i classification of steel and cast iron microstructureS.DHARANI KUMAR
1. The document discusses different types of metal alloys, focusing on ferrous alloys like steels and cast irons.
2. It describes various steel types classified by carbon content - low, medium, and high carbon steels - and their microstructures, properties, and applications.
3. Different cast iron types are also outlined, including gray, ductile, white, malleable, and compacted graphite cast irons, along with their characteristic microstructures and uses.
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T DTE Karnataka C-20 syllabus THANMAY JS
Materials for Engineering [20ME11T]
Unit III- Notes
NON FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
3.1 Copper and its alloys
3.1.1 Brasses
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.1.2 Bronzes-
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2 Aluminum and its alloys
3.2.1 Duralumin
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.2 Y-alloy
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.3 Magnalium
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.2.2 Hindalium
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.3 Nickel and its alloys
Chemical composition
Properties
Applications
3.4 Bearing materials
3.4.1 White metal (Sn based)
3.4.2 Aluminum Bronzes
3.4.3 Self-lubricating Bearings
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T Unit IVTHANMAY JS
4.1 Polymeric materials
4.1.1 Characteristics of Polymer
4.1.2 Types of Polymer
4.1.3 Uses of Polymers
4.2 Classification of Polymers on basis of Thermal behavior
4.2.1Thermo plastics
4.2.2 Thermosetting plastics
4.2.3 Properties of Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
4.2.4 Difference between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastic
4.3 Ceramics
4.3.1 Types of Ceramics
4.3.2 Properties of Ceramics
4.3.3 Applications of Ceramics
4.4 Composite materials
4.4.1 Classification of Composite Materials
4.4.2 Properties of Composite Materials
4.4.3 Applications of Composites
4.5 Advanced engineering materials
Example 1: Biomaterials
Example 2: Nano-materials
Example 3: Smart materials
4.6 Designation and coding of important non-metallic materials as per BIS
Materials for Engineering 20ME11T DTE Karnataka C-20 syllabus THANMAY JS
Unit 1 Class notes
1.1 Classification of Engineering Material
1.2 Structureofmetal-unit cell,BCC,FCCandHCP
structures
1.3 Types of microscopes
1.4 Specimen preparation procedure
1.5 Properties of metals-Physical-mechanical-
Thermal properties
This document discusses different types of stainless steel and tool steel. It describes three main types of stainless steel based on their microstructure: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic stainless steel. Austenitic stainless steel is the most widely used and contains chromium and nickel. It is non-magnetic, corrosion resistant, and can be welded or formed. Ferritic stainless steel contains 12-25% chromium and less than 0.1% carbon. It is magnetic and has good strength and corrosion resistance. Martensitic stainless steel contains 12-25% chromium and 0.1-1.5% carbon. It is heat treated to produce martensite for good hardness and corrosion resistance. Tool steel is an
Material Science and Engineering
Ferrous Materials
Classification of Steel
Low carbon steel
Medium Carbon steel
High carbon steel
Structural steel
stainless steel
Applications
Introduction to Mechanical Metallurgy (Our course project)Rishabh Gupta
The document summarizes key concepts in materials science and engineering. It discusses:
1. The importance of selecting high quality materials for better product design and performance.
2. The four main components in materials science - processing, structure, properties, and performance - and how they interrelate.
3. The main classes of materials - metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, and elastomers - and some of their key characteristics.
4. Crystal structures of metals and how they are classified based on atomic packing efficiency. Factors that determine a material's density are also covered.
Unit i classification of steel and cast iron microstructureS.DHARANI KUMAR
1. The document discusses different types of metal alloys, focusing on ferrous alloys like steels and cast irons.
2. It describes various steel types classified by carbon content - low, medium, and high carbon steels - and their microstructures, properties, and applications.
3. Different cast iron types are also outlined, including gray, ductile, white, malleable, and compacted graphite cast irons, along with their characteristic microstructures and uses.
This document discusses the basics of tool steels, including their types and applications. It outlines the four key factors for successful tool steel application: tool design, fabrication accuracy, steel selection, and heat treatment. It then describes various types of tool steel grouped by their intended application, such as high speed steels, hot work steels, cold work steels, shock resisting steels, and mold steels. For each group, it provides details on composition, hardness, uses, and heat treatment considerations.
Here is a heat treatment that could help determine the carbon content of the steel:
1. Reheat the steel to above its upper critical temperature to fully austenitize it.
2. Quickly quench it in oil or water to transform the austenite to martensite.
3. Measure the hardness of the resulting martensite. Higher carbon steels will have a higher hardness.
4. Compare the measured hardness to known hardness values for different carbon contents after a similar heat treatment. This could provide an estimate of the carbon content.
The idea is that the hardness of the martensite is dependent on the carbon content. By inducing a full martensitic transformation, the carbon content
This document provides an overview of various types of stainless steels and special steels. It discusses the properties and applications of austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and duplex stainless steels. It also covers high-strength low-alloy steel, maraging steel, superalloys, and free-cutting steel. Common applications of these alloys include architecture, automotive, passenger railcars, aircraft, industrial equipment, and medical devices due to their corrosion resistance and high strength.
This document provides an overview of welding metallurgy. It discusses the microstructure of welds and how the rapid changes in temperature during welding affect the physical characteristics and properties of metals. It examines the different zones that form in steel welds, including the fusion zone where grains are epitaxially formed, and the heat-affected zone. Problems that can occur during welding due to remelting and solidification are also summarized, such as macrosegregation, hot cracking, and cold cracking.
4.1 Copper and its alloys - brasses, bronzes Chemical compositions, properties and Applications.
4.2 Aluminium alloys –Y-alloy, Hindalium, duralium with their composition and
Applications.
4.3 Bearing materials like white metals (Sn based), aluminium bronzes. Porous, Self lubricating bearings
Heat treatment methods are used to strengthen stainless steel and modify its properties. Annealing involves heating stainless steel above 1010°C to recrystallize the metal and remove stresses from cold working. Quench annealing involves rapidly cooling the steel to prevent sensitization. Martensitic stainless steels are hardened using austenitizing between 980-1010°C, followed by quenching and tempering to achieve hardness without cracking. Stress relieving and annealing techniques are used after welding to reduce residual stresses. Physical vapor deposition can be used to deposit hard titanium nitride coatings on stainless steel for surface hardening.
The document is a presentation on surface engineering that discusses:
- The introduction and history of surface engineering, which involves altering surface properties of materials to reduce degradation from the environment.
- Various surface coating techniques to improve properties like corrosion and wear resistance, including traditional methods like painting, electroplating, and plasma spraying as well as advanced techniques like PVD, CVD, and laser treatment.
- Applications of surface engineering in industries like automotive and aerospace to enhance performance and reduce costs by extending component lifetimes.
The presentation provides an overview of surface engineering, coating processes, applications, and advantages in improving material surfaces.
Mumbai University.
Mechanical Engineering
SEM III
Material Technology
MOdule 2.2
Theory of Alloys& Alloys Diagrams :
Significance of alloying, Definition, Classification and properties of different types of alloys, Solidification of pure metal, Different types of phase diagrams (Isomorphous, Eutectic,
08
University of Mumbai, B. E. (Mechanical Engineering), Rev 2016 19
Peritectic, Eutectoid, Peritectoid) and their analysis, Importance of Iron as engineering material, Allotropic forms of Iron, Influence of carbon in Iron- Carbon alloying Iron-Iron carbide diagram and its analysis
This document provides information on copper and its alloys. It discusses the properties and applications of copper, as well as various copper alloys including brass, bronze, and gun metal. Specific alloys are defined, such as electrolytic copper, deoxidized copper, and arsenical copper. Application areas are noted for each alloy type. Brass contains zinc as its primary alloying element and types include gliding metal and cartridge brass. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin that is hard and resistant to wear. Gun metal contains copper, tin and zinc and has various types including admiralty and leaded gun metal.
Metals have several key properties - they are malleable and can be beaten into thin sheets, ductile so they can be drawn into thin wires, sonorous and produce sound when struck, generally hard in nature, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Metals also have lustre and are shiny.
Nickel-based superalloys have good strength and oxidation resistance at high temperatures up to 550°C. They are heat resistant, strong, and corrosion and oxidation resistant at temperatures from 760-980°C. There are three types: nickel base, nickel-iron base, and cobalt base. The microstructure contains a γ (gamma) phase matrix and γ' (gamma prime) precipitate phase which are face centered cubic. Various carbide phases form on grain boundaries. Alloying elements like chromium, aluminum, and titanium provide solid solution strengthening and precipitation strengthening through the γ' phase. Superalloys are used in gas turbine engines, rockets, nuclear reactors, and other high-temperature applications.
This document provides an overview of phase diagrams and microstructure development in multicomponent materials systems. It defines key terms like component, phase, solubility limit, and microstructure. It also explains concepts such as equilibrium, metastable states, and lever rule for determining phase compositions and amounts. Different types of binary phase diagrams are discussed, including eutectic and isomorphous systems. The development of microstructure during equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling of alloys is described for both eutectic and isomorphous systems.
The document discusses the structure of atoms and different types of bonding between atoms that form materials. It describes the Bohr atomic model and electron configurations based on the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. The main types of bonding covered are ionic bonding found in ionic compounds, covalent bonding based on electron sharing, and metallic bonding from a "sea of electrons" surrounding positive metal ions. Secondary bonding forces like van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding are also discussed. The relationship between interatomic forces, bonding forces, and physical properties of materials is explained.
FellowBuddy.com is an innovative platform that brings students together to share notes, exam papers, study guides, project reports and presentation for upcoming exams.
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# Students can catch up on notes they missed because of an absence.
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The process of transformation of a substance from liquid to solid state in which the crystal lattice forms and crystals appear.
•Volume shrinkage or volume contraction
This document defines key terminology related to non-metallic polymer materials. It discusses that polymers are composed of large molecules made by linking many small monomer units through polymerization reactions. The document defines common polymer terminology like monomer, polymer, homopolymer, copolymer, and polymerization. It also describes different types of polymer structures and polymerization mechanisms, such as addition polymerization which forms chains and condensation polymerization which removes byproducts.
Diffusion bonding is a solid-state welding technique that joins materials together through atomic diffusion without melting. It involves applying high pressure and moderate heat to join carefully cleaned and mated surfaces. Diffusion occurs in two stages - initial metal-to-metal contact formation followed by atomic diffusion and grain growth across the interface to form a complete bond. Various factors like temperature, pressure, time and surface preparation influence the diffusion rate. Common diffusion bonding methods include gas pressure bonding, vacuum fusion bonding and eutectic bonding. Diffusion bonding finds applications in the fabrication of components for industries like aerospace, nuclear and others.
This document discusses metallurgy and material science, specifically focusing on the iron-carbon phase diagram and the microstructures and transformations associated with steels. It describes the five individual phases in the Fe-C diagram, including ferrite, austenite, cementite, and liquid. It also discusses the three invariant reactions of peritectic, eutectic, and eutectoid. The document classifies different types of steels and cast irons based on their carbon content and describes the microstructures of hypoeutectoid, eutectoid, and hypereutectoid steels. It also discusses phase transformations in steels including pearlite, bainite, and martensite
Unit 5_ Materials Phase diagram_Part 2.pptxPuneetMathur39
This document discusses phase diagrams and related concepts. It begins by defining key terms like phase, component, and system. It then explains the concept of phase equilibrium and how Gibbs phase rule relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. The document discusses unary, binary, and ternary phase diagrams. It explains cooling curves and how they provide information about phase changes during solidification. Construction of phase diagrams using thermal analysis data from cooling curves is also covered. In summary, the document provides an overview of phase diagrams and phase equilibrium through defining concepts and discussing experimental techniques.
This document discusses phase diagrams and their classification. It begins by defining key terms like phases, components, solutions, and mixtures. It then explains Gibbs phase rule and how it relates the number of phases (P) to components (C) and degrees of freedom (F). Equilibrium phase diagrams are introduced as diagrams that depict phase existence under equilibrium conditions as a function of temperature and composition. Different types of phase diagrams are classified, including unary, binary, and ternary systems. Specific binary systems like eutectic and isomorphous systems are discussed in more detail. Important concepts like invariant reactions, intermediate phases, lever rule, and cooling curves are also summarized. The Fe-C binary phase diagram is provided as a detailed
This document discusses the basics of tool steels, including their types and applications. It outlines the four key factors for successful tool steel application: tool design, fabrication accuracy, steel selection, and heat treatment. It then describes various types of tool steel grouped by their intended application, such as high speed steels, hot work steels, cold work steels, shock resisting steels, and mold steels. For each group, it provides details on composition, hardness, uses, and heat treatment considerations.
Here is a heat treatment that could help determine the carbon content of the steel:
1. Reheat the steel to above its upper critical temperature to fully austenitize it.
2. Quickly quench it in oil or water to transform the austenite to martensite.
3. Measure the hardness of the resulting martensite. Higher carbon steels will have a higher hardness.
4. Compare the measured hardness to known hardness values for different carbon contents after a similar heat treatment. This could provide an estimate of the carbon content.
The idea is that the hardness of the martensite is dependent on the carbon content. By inducing a full martensitic transformation, the carbon content
This document provides an overview of various types of stainless steels and special steels. It discusses the properties and applications of austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and duplex stainless steels. It also covers high-strength low-alloy steel, maraging steel, superalloys, and free-cutting steel. Common applications of these alloys include architecture, automotive, passenger railcars, aircraft, industrial equipment, and medical devices due to their corrosion resistance and high strength.
This document provides an overview of welding metallurgy. It discusses the microstructure of welds and how the rapid changes in temperature during welding affect the physical characteristics and properties of metals. It examines the different zones that form in steel welds, including the fusion zone where grains are epitaxially formed, and the heat-affected zone. Problems that can occur during welding due to remelting and solidification are also summarized, such as macrosegregation, hot cracking, and cold cracking.
4.1 Copper and its alloys - brasses, bronzes Chemical compositions, properties and Applications.
4.2 Aluminium alloys –Y-alloy, Hindalium, duralium with their composition and
Applications.
4.3 Bearing materials like white metals (Sn based), aluminium bronzes. Porous, Self lubricating bearings
Heat treatment methods are used to strengthen stainless steel and modify its properties. Annealing involves heating stainless steel above 1010°C to recrystallize the metal and remove stresses from cold working. Quench annealing involves rapidly cooling the steel to prevent sensitization. Martensitic stainless steels are hardened using austenitizing between 980-1010°C, followed by quenching and tempering to achieve hardness without cracking. Stress relieving and annealing techniques are used after welding to reduce residual stresses. Physical vapor deposition can be used to deposit hard titanium nitride coatings on stainless steel for surface hardening.
The document is a presentation on surface engineering that discusses:
- The introduction and history of surface engineering, which involves altering surface properties of materials to reduce degradation from the environment.
- Various surface coating techniques to improve properties like corrosion and wear resistance, including traditional methods like painting, electroplating, and plasma spraying as well as advanced techniques like PVD, CVD, and laser treatment.
- Applications of surface engineering in industries like automotive and aerospace to enhance performance and reduce costs by extending component lifetimes.
The presentation provides an overview of surface engineering, coating processes, applications, and advantages in improving material surfaces.
Mumbai University.
Mechanical Engineering
SEM III
Material Technology
MOdule 2.2
Theory of Alloys& Alloys Diagrams :
Significance of alloying, Definition, Classification and properties of different types of alloys, Solidification of pure metal, Different types of phase diagrams (Isomorphous, Eutectic,
08
University of Mumbai, B. E. (Mechanical Engineering), Rev 2016 19
Peritectic, Eutectoid, Peritectoid) and their analysis, Importance of Iron as engineering material, Allotropic forms of Iron, Influence of carbon in Iron- Carbon alloying Iron-Iron carbide diagram and its analysis
This document provides information on copper and its alloys. It discusses the properties and applications of copper, as well as various copper alloys including brass, bronze, and gun metal. Specific alloys are defined, such as electrolytic copper, deoxidized copper, and arsenical copper. Application areas are noted for each alloy type. Brass contains zinc as its primary alloying element and types include gliding metal and cartridge brass. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin that is hard and resistant to wear. Gun metal contains copper, tin and zinc and has various types including admiralty and leaded gun metal.
Metals have several key properties - they are malleable and can be beaten into thin sheets, ductile so they can be drawn into thin wires, sonorous and produce sound when struck, generally hard in nature, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Metals also have lustre and are shiny.
Nickel-based superalloys have good strength and oxidation resistance at high temperatures up to 550°C. They are heat resistant, strong, and corrosion and oxidation resistant at temperatures from 760-980°C. There are three types: nickel base, nickel-iron base, and cobalt base. The microstructure contains a γ (gamma) phase matrix and γ' (gamma prime) precipitate phase which are face centered cubic. Various carbide phases form on grain boundaries. Alloying elements like chromium, aluminum, and titanium provide solid solution strengthening and precipitation strengthening through the γ' phase. Superalloys are used in gas turbine engines, rockets, nuclear reactors, and other high-temperature applications.
This document provides an overview of phase diagrams and microstructure development in multicomponent materials systems. It defines key terms like component, phase, solubility limit, and microstructure. It also explains concepts such as equilibrium, metastable states, and lever rule for determining phase compositions and amounts. Different types of binary phase diagrams are discussed, including eutectic and isomorphous systems. The development of microstructure during equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling of alloys is described for both eutectic and isomorphous systems.
The document discusses the structure of atoms and different types of bonding between atoms that form materials. It describes the Bohr atomic model and electron configurations based on the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. The main types of bonding covered are ionic bonding found in ionic compounds, covalent bonding based on electron sharing, and metallic bonding from a "sea of electrons" surrounding positive metal ions. Secondary bonding forces like van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding are also discussed. The relationship between interatomic forces, bonding forces, and physical properties of materials is explained.
FellowBuddy.com is an innovative platform that brings students together to share notes, exam papers, study guides, project reports and presentation for upcoming exams.
We connect Students who have an understanding of course material with Students who need help.
Benefits:-
# Students can catch up on notes they missed because of an absence.
# Underachievers can find peer developed notes that break down lecture and study material in a way that they can understand
# Students can earn better grades, save time and study effectively
Our Vision & Mission – Simplifying Students Life
Our Belief – “The great breakthrough in your life comes when you realize it, that you can learn anything you need to learn; to accomplish any goal that you have set for yourself. This means there are no limits on what you can be, have or do.”
Like Us - https://www.facebook.com/FellowBuddycom
The process of transformation of a substance from liquid to solid state in which the crystal lattice forms and crystals appear.
•Volume shrinkage or volume contraction
This document defines key terminology related to non-metallic polymer materials. It discusses that polymers are composed of large molecules made by linking many small monomer units through polymerization reactions. The document defines common polymer terminology like monomer, polymer, homopolymer, copolymer, and polymerization. It also describes different types of polymer structures and polymerization mechanisms, such as addition polymerization which forms chains and condensation polymerization which removes byproducts.
Diffusion bonding is a solid-state welding technique that joins materials together through atomic diffusion without melting. It involves applying high pressure and moderate heat to join carefully cleaned and mated surfaces. Diffusion occurs in two stages - initial metal-to-metal contact formation followed by atomic diffusion and grain growth across the interface to form a complete bond. Various factors like temperature, pressure, time and surface preparation influence the diffusion rate. Common diffusion bonding methods include gas pressure bonding, vacuum fusion bonding and eutectic bonding. Diffusion bonding finds applications in the fabrication of components for industries like aerospace, nuclear and others.
This document discusses metallurgy and material science, specifically focusing on the iron-carbon phase diagram and the microstructures and transformations associated with steels. It describes the five individual phases in the Fe-C diagram, including ferrite, austenite, cementite, and liquid. It also discusses the three invariant reactions of peritectic, eutectic, and eutectoid. The document classifies different types of steels and cast irons based on their carbon content and describes the microstructures of hypoeutectoid, eutectoid, and hypereutectoid steels. It also discusses phase transformations in steels including pearlite, bainite, and martensite
Unit 5_ Materials Phase diagram_Part 2.pptxPuneetMathur39
This document discusses phase diagrams and related concepts. It begins by defining key terms like phase, component, and system. It then explains the concept of phase equilibrium and how Gibbs phase rule relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. The document discusses unary, binary, and ternary phase diagrams. It explains cooling curves and how they provide information about phase changes during solidification. Construction of phase diagrams using thermal analysis data from cooling curves is also covered. In summary, the document provides an overview of phase diagrams and phase equilibrium through defining concepts and discussing experimental techniques.
This document discusses phase diagrams and their classification. It begins by defining key terms like phases, components, solutions, and mixtures. It then explains Gibbs phase rule and how it relates the number of phases (P) to components (C) and degrees of freedom (F). Equilibrium phase diagrams are introduced as diagrams that depict phase existence under equilibrium conditions as a function of temperature and composition. Different types of phase diagrams are classified, including unary, binary, and ternary systems. Specific binary systems like eutectic and isomorphous systems are discussed in more detail. Important concepts like invariant reactions, intermediate phases, lever rule, and cooling curves are also summarized. The Fe-C binary phase diagram is provided as a detailed
This document provides an introduction to alloy phase diagrams. It discusses how alloy phase diagrams are useful for metallurgists in developing new alloys, processing alloys, and solving performance issues. The document then defines key terms related to alloy phase diagrams including phases, equilibrium, polymorphism, metastable phases, systems, phase diagrams, and the phase rule. It provides examples of unary, binary, and ternary phase diagrams. Specifically, it discusses invariant equilibrium, univariant equilibrium, and bivariant equilibrium for unary systems. It also discusses miscibility in solid and liquid states, liquidus and solidus lines, eutectic reactions, and three-phase equilibrium for binary systems.
This document discusses thermal equilibrium diagrams, also known as phase diagrams. It defines key terms like phase, system, components, and equilibrium. It explains that phase diagrams show the phases that exist at equilibrium for different combinations of temperature and composition. They are useful for studying phase separation, solidification, heat treatment effects, and other structural changes. However, they only apply under equilibrium conditions, which are difficult to achieve in practical applications like welding. The document also classifies phase diagrams as unary, binary, ternary, etc. based on the number of components and describes common features like liquidus lines, solidus lines, and how to determine phase compositions.
The document provides information about phase diagrams and equilibrium diagrams. It defines a phase as a state of matter that has uniform structure, composition, and properties throughout, with a clear interface between it and other phases. A phase diagram graphically represents the phases present in a material at different temperatures, pressures, and compositions, describing equilibrium conditions. It indicates melting/solidification temperatures and phase formation ranges. General types of solid solutions and Hume-Rothery's rules for substitutional solutions are discussed. Gibbs' phase rule relates the number of coexisting phases to components and degrees of freedom. Different types of phase diagrams including unary, binary, ternary and quaternary are classified.
The document provides information on phase diagrams, including definitions of key concepts like phases, phase equilibria, and binary phase diagrams. It discusses one-component and binary systems, focusing on isomorphous, eutectic, and iron-carbon systems. For binary systems, it explains how to interpret phase diagrams to determine the phases present, phase compositions, and phase amounts using rules like lever rule. It summarizes common reactions like eutectic, eutectoid, and peritectic and analyzes the iron-carbon phase diagram in detail.
This document provides information about phase diagrams:
[1] Phase diagrams graphically show the phases present in a material system at different temperatures and compositions. They can indicate properties like the number, type, and amount of phases.
[2] There are several common types of phase diagrams including complete solid solution, eutectic, and peritectic diagrams. Cooling curves are also used to experimentally determine phase boundaries.
[3] The phase rule relates the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. Lever rule calculations use tie lines on phase diagrams to determine the composition and relative amounts of coexisting phases.
The document outlines a lecture on phase diagrams, including:
1) Definitions of key terms like phase, solubility limit, and phase diagrams.
2) Descriptions of different types of phase diagrams including binary isomorphous and eutectic systems.
3) Details on the important iron-carbon phase diagram, including the various phases like ferrite, cementite, and pearlite and how microstructure changes with carbon content and heat treatment.
The document defines key terms related to phase diagrams:
1) Components are the chemically distinct parts of a system (like Fe and C in steel), phases are uniform regions that can contain one or more components.
2) Solubility limits define how much of one component can dissolve in another phase.
3) Microstructure describes the number/arrangement of phases in a material and influences its properties.
4) Equilibrium is the thermodynamically stable state achieved over long times, while metastable states can appear stable over shorter times before reaching equilibrium.
5) Phase diagrams graphically map the equilibrium phases that exist at different temperatures, pressures, and compositions.
Phase diagrams provide information about the equilibrium conditions and transformations between different phases in a material system. They describe how the phases of a material vary with changes in temperature, pressure, and composition.
This document discusses key concepts related to phase diagrams including phases, the Gibbs phase rule, one-component and binary phase diagrams, eutectic and peritectic reactions, intermediate phases, ternary diagrams, and lever rule. It provides examples of phase diagrams for common material systems like water, Cu-Ni, Pb-Sn, Mg-Pb, and Cu-Zn. Cooling curves are also explained to illustrate phase transformations.
BME 303 - Lesson 4 - Thermal Processing and properties of biomaterials.pptxatlestmunni
This document provides an overview of phase diagrams and transformations in the iron-carbon system. It defines key terminology like phases, invariant reactions, lever rule, and hypoeutectic, eutectic, and hypereutectic transformations. The iron-carbon phase diagram is discussed in detail, including the different phases (ferrite, cementite, austenite), invariant reactions (peritectic, eutectic, eutectoid), and microstructures that form in steels of different carbon compositions (pearlite, proeutectoid ferrite/cementite). In summary, it introduces phase diagrams and uses the iron-carbon system as a key example to illustrate phase transformations.
The document discusses phase rule and its application to a one component water system. It defines phase rule and explains how it can be applied to determine the degrees of freedom in a water system containing solid, liquid, and gas phases of water. The key points are:
1) Phase rule relates the number of phases (P), components (C), and degrees of freedom (F) as F = C - P + 2.
2) In a one component water system, degrees of freedom can be 0, 1, or 2 depending on whether there are 3, 2, or 1 phases present respectively.
3) The phase diagram of a water system shows boundary curves where two phases coexist and areas where a
The document discusses phase diagrams and phase equilibria. It introduces key concepts like the Gibbs phase rule, cooling curves, and classification of equilibrium diagrams. The Gibbs phase rule establishes the relationship between the number of phases, components, and degrees of freedom in a system. Cooling curves show the phases present at different temperatures during solidification. The classification of equilibrium diagrams includes diagrams for pure metals, binary solutions, eutectic alloys, and off-eutectic alloys. Hume-Rothery rules govern solid solubility based on factors like atomic size and chemical affinity. Phase diagrams provide important information about phase boundaries, solubility, and temperatures of phase changes.
The document contains information from Professor Devaprakasam about alloys and phase diagrams. It discusses how alloys are mixtures of metals that cannot be separated physically. Alloys form solid solutions where one element dissolves into the crystal structure of another. Phase diagrams show the different crystal structures present at various temperatures and compositions for a metal system. The copper-nickel phase diagram is used as an example to demonstrate how to determine the phases present, their compositions, and relative amounts at a given point using tie lines and the lever rule.
Phase diagrams for Different Alloy
By
P.SENTHAMARAIKANNAN,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ,
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
KAMARAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
VIRUDHUNAGAR, TAMILNADU,
INDIA
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Materials for Engineering 20ME11T Unit V HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES
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Materials for Engineering [20ME11T]
Unit V- HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES
Notes
5.0 Concept of phase
5.1 Gibbs phase rule
5.2 Equilibrium phase diagram
5.3 Phase diagram of a pure metal
5.4 Phase diagram of alloy
5.5 Phase diagram of Solid solution
5.6 Iron–carbon equilibrium diagram indicating various phases
5.7 Critical temperature and its significance
5.9 Reactions on Iron carbon equilibrium diagram of Mild steel
5.9 Heat treatment
5.10 Purpose of heat treatment
5.11 Mechanism of heat treatment
5.12 Types or Classification of Heat Treatment Processes
5.12.1.1 Annealing
5.12.1.2 Normalizing
5.12.1.3 Hardening
5.12.1.4 Tempering
5.12.1.5 Nitriding
5.12.1.6 Cyaniding
5.12.1.7 Carburising
5.12.1.8 Case Hardening or Surface Hardening
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5.0 Concept of phase
A phase can be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and
chemical characteristics i.e. it is a physically distinct from other phases, chemically
homogeneous and mechanically separable portion of a system.
A component can exist in many phases.
E.g.: Water exists as ice, liquid water, and water vapor. Carbon exists as graphite and diamond.
When two phases are present in a system, it is not necessary that there be a difference in both
physical and chemical properties; a disparity in one or the other set of properties is sufficient.
A solution (liquid or solid) is phase with more than one component; a mixture is a material
with more than one phase.
Solute (minor component of two in a solution) does not change the structural pattern of the
solvent, and the composition of any solution can be varied.
In mixtures, there are different phases, each with its own atomic arrangement.
It is possible to have a mixture of two different solutions.
5.1 Gibbs phase rule
The phase rule, first announced by J. Willard Gibbs in 1876, relates the physical state of a
mixture to the number of constituents in the system and to its conditions. It was also Gibbs who
first called each homogeneous region in a system by the term "phase."
In a system under a set of conditions, number of phases (P) exist can be related to the number of
components (C) and degrees of freedom (F) by Gibbs phase rule.
Degrees of freedom refers to the number of independent variables (e.g.: pressure, temperature)
that can be varied individually to effect changes in a system.
Thermodynamically derived Gibbs phase rule:
In practical conditions for metallurgical and materials systems, pressure can be treated as a
constant (1atm.). Thus Condensed Gibbs phase rule is written as:
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5.2 Equilibrium phase diagram
A diagram that depicts existence of different phases of a system under equilibrium is termed as
phase diagram. It is actually a collection of solubility limit curves. It is also known as
equilibrium or constitutional diagram. Equilibrium phase diagrams represent the relationships
between temperature, compositions and the quantities of phases at equilibrium. These diagrams
do not indicate the dynamics when one phase transforms in to another.
Useful terminology related to phase diagrams: liquidus, solidus, solvus, terminal solid solution,
invariant reaction, intermediate solid solution, inter-metallic compound, etc.
Phase diagrams are classified according to the number of component present in a particular
system. Important information’s, useful in materials development and selection, obtainable from
a phase diagram
-It shows phases present at different compositions and temperatures under slow cooling
(equilibrium) conditions.
-It indicates equilibrium solid solubility of one element/compound in another.
-It suggests temperature at which an alloy starts to solidify and the range of solidification.
-It signals the temperature at which different phases start to melt.
-Amount of each phase in a two-phase mixture can be obtained.
The phase diagram is a crucial part of metallurgy - it shows the equilibrium states of a
mixture, so that given a temperature and composition, it is possible to calculate which phases
will be formed, and in what quantities. As such it is very valuable to be able to construct a phase
diagram and know how to use it to predict behavior of materials.
The main theory behind phase diagrams is based around the latent heat that is evolved when a
mixture is cooled, and changes phase. This means that by plotting graphs of temperature against
time for a variety of different compositions, it should be possible to see at what temperatures the
different phases form.
It is relatively easy to produce a rough binary phase diagram, as will be shown later in the
package, but although it is quick to take readings for the top part of a phase diagram, it takes
longer, and hence more sensitive equipment to monitor the changes that take place when a solid
changes phase. A typical simple binary phase diagram is as follows:
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Where L stands for liquid, and A and B are the two components and α and β are two solid phases
rich in A and B respectively. The blue lines represent the liquidus and solidus lines, which are
relatively simple to measure. The red lines involve a solid-to-solid transition, and so require
much more sensitive equipment.
However, there is also a lot of thermodynamic theory behind phase diagrams, which allows more
problematic or more complex systems to be predicted, and this can lead to faster creation of
phase diagrams, as it can take a long time to pick up all the stable phases in experiments, and
there is not always the time available for such practical work.
A crucial point to remember is that a phase diagram should always display the equilibrium
phases, and so with cooler temperatures, these are hard to attain due to kinetic problems. Even at
higher temperatures, there may be problems of having enough time for the solid to fully
equilibrate as the system is cooling.
5.3 Phase diagram of a pure metal
Phase diagram of a pure metal or a substance is a graphical representation of the domain in
which a given state is stable. For example it gives the range of temperature and pressure over
which it exists as solid (S), liquid (L) or gas G). Figure shown below gives a typical phase
diagram of a pure metal. A schematic phase diagram of a pure metal indicating the, pressure,
temperature domain where it can exist as solid, liquid or gas. The line indicates boundary
between two phases. On any point on the line two phases are equally stable. There is a point
where three lines meet. This is a critical point (triple point) where three phases can coexist.
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Apply phase rule. This gives F=0 meaning that it has no degree of freedom. Three phases can
coexist only at a fixed temperature & pressure. For water the triple point is at 0.006atmosphere
0.01°C. The caption of fig 2 describes the main features of the phase diagram. It has a horizontal
line drawn at 1 atmosphere pressure. It intersects the S/L boundary at its melting point and L/G
boundary at its boiling point. The slopes of these lines are positive indicating that both melting
and boiling points increase with increasing pressure.
5.4 Phase diagram of alloy
Phase Rule. When pressure and temperature are the state variables, the rule can be written as
follows:
f=c-p+2
Where f is the number of independent variables (called degrees of freedom), c is the
number of components, and p is the number of stable phases in the system.
The phase rule says that stable equilibrium between two phases in a unary system allows one
degree of freedom (f= 1 - 2 + 2).
This condition, called uni-variant equilibrium or mono variant equilibrium, is illustrated
as lines 1, 2, and 3 separating the single phase fields in Figure below. Either pressure or
temperature may be freely selected, but not both. Once a pressure is selected, there is only one
temperature that will satisfy equilibrium conditions, and conversely.
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The three curves that issue from the triple point are called triple curves: line 1,
representing the reaction between the solid and the gas phases, is the sublimation curve; line 2 is
the melting curve; and line 3 is the vaporization curve. The vaporization curve ends at point 4,
called a critical point, where the physical distinction between the liquid and gas phases
disappears.
5.5 Phase diagram of Solid solution
A solid solution describes a family of materials which have a range of compositions
and a single crystal structure. Many examples can be found in metallurgy, geology
and solid-state chemistry. The word "solution" is used to describe the intimate mixing
of components at the atomic level and distinguishes these homogeneous materials
from physical mixtures of components.
The solid solution phase diagram explains the behavior of chemical solid solution
series, such as the transition from high temperature, calcium-rich plagioclase to low
temperature sodium-rich plagioclase, or the transition from high temperature
magnesium-rich to low temperature iron-rich crystals in ferro-magnesium minerals
(e.g. olivine, pyroxene).
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Solid solutions have important commercial and industrial applications; as such mixtures often
have superior properties to pure materials. Many metal alloys are solid solutions. Even small
amounts of solute can affect the electrical and physical properties of the solvent.
The binary phase diagram in Fig. 2 shows the phases of a mixture of two substances in varying
concentrations, A and B. The region labeled "α" is a solid solution, with B acting as the solute
in a matrix of A. On the other end of the concentration scale, the region labeled "β" is also a solid
solution, with A acting as the solute in a matrix of B. The large solid region in between
the α and β solid solutions, labeled "α + β", is not a solid solution. Instead, an examination of
the microstructure of a mixture in this range would reveal two phases—solid solution A-in-B and
solid solution B-in-A would form separate phases, perhaps lamella or grains.
5.6 Iron–carbon equilibrium diagram indicating various phases
A study of the constitution and structure of all steels and irons must first start with the
iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. Many of the basic features of this system influence the
behavior of even the most complex alloy steels.
A study of the constitution and structure of all steels and irons must first start with the iron-
carbon equilibrium diagram. Many of the basic features of this system (shown in Figure below)
influence the behavior of even the most complex alloy steels. For example, the phases found in
the simple binary Fe-C system persist in complex steels, but it is necessary to examine the effects
alloying elements have on the formation and properties of these phases. The iron-carbon diagram
provides a valuable foundation on which to build knowledge of both plain carbon and alloy
steels in their immense variety.
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It should first be pointed out that the normal equilibrium diagram really represents the metastable
equilibrium between iron and iron carbide (cementite). Cementite is metastable, and the true
equilibrium should be between iron and graphite. Although graphite occurs extensively in cast
irons (2-4 wt % C), it is usually difficult to obtain this equilibrium phase in steels
(0.03-1.5 wt %C). Therefore, the metastable equilibrium between iron and iron carbide should be
considered, because it is relevant to the behavior of most steels in practice.
The much larger phase field of γ-iron (austenite) compared with that of α-iron (ferrite) reflects
the much greater solubility of carbon in γ-iron, with a maximum value of just over 2 wt % at
1147°C. This high solubility of carbon in γ-iron is of extreme importance in heat treatment, when
solution treatment in the γ-region followed by rapid quenching to room temperature allows a
supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron to be formed.
The α-iron phase field is severely restricted, with a maximum carbon solubility of 0.02 wt% at
723°C (P), so over the carbon range encountered in steels from 0.05 to 1.5 wt%, α-iron is
normally associated with iron carbide in one form or another. Similarly, the δ-phase field is very
restricted between 1390 and 1534°C and disappears completely when the carbon content reaches
0.5 wt% (B). There are several temperatures or critical points in the diagram, which are
important, both from the basic and from the practical point of view.
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5.7 Critical temperature and its significance
Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite starts to
form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.
Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which cementite
starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys.
Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite
eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist.
Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which α-ferrite
is ferromagnetic.
5.8 Reactions on Iron carbon equilibrium diagram of Mild steel
1. Peritectic Reaction:
A peritectic reaction, in general, can be represented by an equation:
Where, L represents a liquid of fixed composition, S1 and S2 are two different solids of fixed
composition each. As illustrated in the peritectic region of Fe-Fe3C diagram.
2. Eutectic Reaction:
A eutectic invariant reaction in general can be represented by an equation:
Where, L represents liquid of eutectic composition and, S1 and S2 are two different solids of
fixed composition each. As illustrated in the eutectic region of Fe-Fe3 C diagram.
3. Eutectoid Reaction:
The eutectoid invariant reaction is a solid state version of eutectic reaction and, in general, can be
represented by an equation:
Where, S1, S2 and S3 are three different solids each of fixed composition. As illustrated in the
eutectoid region of Fe-Fe3C diagram.
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5.9 Heat treatment
Heat treatment is defined as an operation involving the heating and cooling of a metal or an
alloy in the solid-state to obtain certain desirable properties without change composition.
The process of heat treatment is carried out to change the grain size, to modify the structure of
the material, and to relieve the stresses set up the material after hot or cold working.
The heat treatment is done to improve the machinability.
To improve magnetic and electrical properties.
To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion, and much more reason.
Heat treatment consists of heating the metal near or above its critical temperature, held for a
particular time at that finally cooling the metal in some medium which may be air, water,
brine, or molten salts. The heat treatment process includes annealing, case hardening, tempering,
normalizing and quenching, nitriding, cyaniding, etc.
The process of heat treatment involves heating of solid metals to specified (re-crystallization)
temperatures holding them at that temperature and then cooling them at suitable rates in order to
enable the metals to acquire the desired properties to the required extents. All this take place
because of the changes in size, form, nature and the distribution of different constituents in the
micro-structure of these metals. All heat treatment processes, therefore, comprise the following
three stages of components:
1. Heating the metal to a predefined temperature.
2. Holding it at that temperature for sufficient time so that the structure of the metal becomes
uniform throughout.
3. Cooling the metal at a predetermined rate in a suitable media so as to force the metal to
acquire a desired internal structure and thus, obtain the desired properties to the required extent.
5.10 Purpose of Heat Treatment
Metals and alloys are heat treated in order to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
1. To relieve internal stresses set up during other operations like casting, welding, hot and
cold working, etc.
2. To improve mechanical properties like hardness,toughness, strength, ductility, etc.
3. To improve machinability
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4. To change the internal structure to improve their resistance to heat, wear and corrosion.
5. To effect a change in their grain size.
6. To soften them to make suitable for operations like cold rolling and wire drawing.
7. To improve their electrical and magnetic properties.
8. To make their structure homogenous so as to remove coring and segregation.
9. To drive out trapped gases.
5.10 Mechanism of heat treatment
5.12 Types or Classification of Heat Treatment Processes
Various heat treatment processes can be classified as follows:
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. hardening
4. Tempering
5. Nitriding
6. Cyaniding
7. Carburising
8. Case Hardening or Surface Hardening
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5.12.1 Annealing
Annealing is one of the most important processes of heat treatment. It is one of the most widely
used operations in the heat treatment of iron and steel and is defined as the softening process.
Heating from 30 – 50°C above the upper critical temperature and cooling it at a very slow rate by
seeking it the furnace. The main aim of annealing is to make steel more ductile and malleable
and to remove internal stresses. This process makes the steel soft so that it can be easily
machined.
Purpose of Annealing
It softens steel and to improve its machinability.
To refine grain size and remove gases.
It removes the internal stresses developed during the previous process.
To obtain desired ductility, malleability, and toughness.
It modifies the electrical and magnetic properties.
Depending on the carbon content, the steel is heated to a temperature of about 50° to 55°C above
its critical temperature range. It is held at this temperature for a definite period of time depending
on the type of furnace and nature of work. The steel is then allowed to cool inside the furnace
constantly.
Application of Annealing
It is applied to castings and forgings.
Different type of annealing processes can be classified as follows:
1. Full annealing.
2. Process annealing.
3. Spheroidise annealing.
4. Diffusion annealing.
5. Isothermal annealing.
5.12.2Normalizing
The main aim of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses developed after the cold working
process. In this, steel is heated 30 – 50°C above its upper critical temperature and cooling it in
the air. It improves mechanical and electrical properties, machinability & tensile strength.
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Normalizing is the process of heat treatment carried out to restore the structure of normal
condition.
Purpose of Normalizing
Promote uniformity of structure.
To secure grain refinement.
To bring about desirable changes in the properties of steel.
The steel is heated to a temperature of about 40° to 50°C above its upper critical temperature. It
is held at this temperature for a short duration. The steel is then allowed cool in still air at room
temperature, which is known as air quenching.
Application of Normalizing
It is applied castings and forgings to refine grain structure and to relieve stresses.
It is applied after cold working such as rolling, stamping and hammering.
5.12.3 Hardening
Hardening: The main aim of the hardening process is to make steel hard tough. In this process,
steel is heated 30° – 40°C above the upper critical temperature and then followed by continues
cooling to room temperature by quenching in water or oil. It is the opposite process of annealing.
Purpose of Hardening
By hardening, it increases the hardness of steel.
To resist to wear
Allows the steel to cut other metals
The steel is heated above its critical temperature range. It is held at that temperature for a definite
period of time. The steel is then rapidly cooled in a medium of quenching. The quenching
medium is selected according to the degree of hardness desired. The air, water, bring, oils and
molten salts are used as quenching mediums. A thin section, such knife blades are cooled in air.
Water is widely used medium but it results in the formation of bubbles on the surface of the
metal. Hence brine solution is used to prevent this. Oil is used when there is a risk of distortion
on cracks and is suitable for alloy steels. The molten salts are used to cool thin section to obtain
crack-free and impact-resistant products.
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Application of Hardening
It is applied for chisels, sledgehammer, hand hammer, centre punches, taps, dies, milling cutters,
knife blades and gears.
5.12.4 Tempering
Tempering: When the hardening process hardens a steel specimen, it becomes brittle and has
high residual stress. It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened by
quenching for the purpose of increasing its usefulness. Tempering or draw results in a reduction
of brittleness and removal of internal strains caused during hardening. Steel must be tempered
after the hardening process. The tempering is divided into three categories according to the
usefulness of steel required.
Low-temperature tempering.
Medium temperature tempering.
High-temperature tempering.
Purpose of Tempering
To relieve internally stressed caused by hardening.
To reduce brittleness.
Improve ductility, strength and toughness.
To increase wear resistance.
To obtain desired mechanical properties.
The steel after being quenched in the hardening process is reheated to a temperature slightly
above the temperature range at which it is to be used, but below the lower critical temperature.
The temperature here varies from 100°C to 700°C. The reheating is done in a bath of oil or
molten lead or molten salt. The specimen is held in the bath for a period of time till attains the
temperature evenly, the time depends on the composition and desired quality of steel. Now the
specimen is removed from the bath and allow to cool slowly in still air.
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Application of Tempering
It is applied to cutting tools, tools, and gears, which are hardened by the hardening process.
5.12.5 Nitriding
Nitriding is the process of the case or surface hardening in which nitrogen gas is employed to
obtain hard skin of the metal. In this process, steel is heated in the presence of ammonia
environment. Due to this, a nitrogen atom is deposited and makes material hard. Induction
hardening and Flame hardening objects are heated by an oxy-acetylene flame.
Purpose of Nitriding
To harden the surface of the steel to a certain depth.
Increase resistance to wear and fatigue.
To increase corrosion resistance.
It is done in the electric furnace where temperature varying between 450° and 510°C is
maintained. The part is well machined and finished and placed in an airtight container provided
with outlet and inlet tubes through which ammonia gas is circulated. The container with the part
is placed in the furnace and ammonia gas is passed through it while the furnace is heated. During
the process of heating nitrogen gas is released from ammonia in the form of atomic nitrogen,
which reacts with the surface of the part, and forms iron nitrate. The depth of entrance depends
upon the length of time spent at the nitriding temperature. The part is taken out and it does not
require any quenching or further heat treatment.
Application of Nitriding
It is applied for hardening the surface of medium carbon alloy steels.
5.12.6 Cyaniding
Cyaniding: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of sodium cyanide environment. Due to
this, carbon and nitrogen atoms are deposited on the surface of steel and make it hard.
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Purpose of Cyaniding
This method is effective for increasing the fatigue limit of medium and small-sized parts such
as gears, shafts, wrist pins etc.
To increase surface hardness.
Increase wears resistance.
To give the clean, bright and pleasing appearance to the hardened surface.
The part to be treated is dipped in a molten cyanide salt bath maintained at a temperature of
950°C. The molten salts used are sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium cyanide and soda
ash. The immersed article is left in the molten cyanide salt at a temperature of 950°C for about
15 to 20 minutes. The decomposition of sodium cyanide yield nitrogen and carbon from carbon
monoxide, which is diffused into the surface resulting in hardening the surface. The part is then
taken out of the bath and quenched in water or oil.
Application of Cyaniding
It is applied to small articles like gears, bushing, screws, pins and small hand tools, which
require a thin and hard wear-resisting surface.
5.12.7 Carburising:
Carburising: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of carbon environment. Due to
this carbon atoms are deposited on the metal surface and make it hard.
5.12.8 Case Hardening or Surface Hardening
The main aim of this process is to make the only external surface of steel hard and inner core
soft. It is the process of carburization i.e., saturating the surface layer of steel with carbon, or
some other process by which case is hardened and the core remains soft.
Purpose of Case Hardening
To obtain a hard and wear resistance to machine parts.
By case hardening, it obtains a tough core.
To obtain a higher fatigue limit and high mechanical properties in the core.