This document discusses various memory management techniques used in operating systems, including memory protection using base and limit registers, address binding at compile, load, and execution times, logical vs physical address spaces, memory allocation using contiguous and multiple partition schemes, segmentation using segment tables, and paging using page tables. Paging allows for non-contiguous allocation of physical memory through the use of pages and frames, address translation via a page table with page and offset, and protection bits. It aims to reduce fragmentation and support sharing of common code through reentrant code.
Operating System
Topic Memory Management
for Btech/Bsc (C.S)/BCA...
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Operating System
Topic Memory Management
for Btech/Bsc (C.S)/BCA...
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or manages primary memory. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Main memory must support both OS and user processes
Limited resource, must allocate efficiently
Contiguous allocation is one early method
Main memory usually into two partitions:
Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector
User processes then held in high memory
Each process contained in single contiguous section of memory
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
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The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
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This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
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3. Address Binding
Input Queue
- Single-tasking Procedure
Binding
- Mapping of symbolic into logical Address
Steps of Binding
- Compile Time
- Load Time
- Execution Time
4. Logical vs Physical Address Space
Logical Address
- Logical Address Space
Physical Address
- Physical Address Space
Memory Management Unit (MMU)
Loading when called.
Better memory utilization.
Useful when large amount of code needs to
be handled.
Dynamic relocation using a
relocation register
Mapping of virtual into Physical Address
- Relocation Registers
- MS-DOS on Intel 80x86 used 4 relocation registers
6. Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing
store, and then brought back into memory for continued execution
Standard Swapping
Standard swapping involves moving processes between main memory
and Baking store.
• Backing store
• Roll out, roll in
• transfer time
• ready queue
8. Context Switch Time including Swapping
• If next processes to be put on CPU is not in memory, need to swap out
a process and swap in target process
• Context switch time can then be very high
• 100MB process swapping to hard disk with transfer rate of 50MB/sec
• Swapping is constrained by other factors as well.
Pending I/O
Double buffering
Standard swapping not used in modern operating systems
9. Swapping on Mobile Systems
• Not typically supported
• Flash memory based
• Small amount of space
• Limited number of write cycles
• Poor throughput between flash memory and CPU on
mobile platform
• Instead use other methods to free memory if low
iOS asks
Read-only data
Failure to free
application state
10. Contiguous Memory Allocation
The main memory must accommodate
both the operating system and the
various user processes.
Main memory usually into two partitions.
- Resident operating system.
- User processes.
- single contiguous section.
11. • Relocation registers used to protect user processes
-Base register
-Limit register
-MMU maps
-transient
Memory Protection
12. Memory Allocation
Multiple-partition allocation
• Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of
partitions
• Variable-partition
• Hole
• process arrival
• Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
13. Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
• which concerns how to satisfy a request of size n from a
list of free holes.
• First-fit
• Best-fit
• Worst-fit
15. Segmentation
Memory segmentation is the division of a computer's
primary memory into segments or sections.
A program is a collection of segments.
A segment is a logical unit such as.
- main program
- procedure
- local variables
- global variables
16. User’s View of a Program Logical View of Segmentation
1
3
2
4
1
4
2
3
user space physical memory space
17. Segmentation Architecture
Logical address consists of a two tuple
<segment-number, offset>
Segment table.
- Base
- Limit
Segment-table base register (STBR)
Segment-table length register (STLR)
Protection
With each entry in segment table associate:
validation bit = 0 illegal segment
read/write/execute privileges
Protection bits
segments length
19. Paging
• Physical address space of a process can be noncontiguous;
process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is
available
• Avoids external fragmentation
• Avoids problem of varying sized memory chunks
• Frames
• Pages
• Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses
• Backing store likewise split into pages
• Still have Internal fragmentation
20. Address Translation Scheme
Address generated by CPU is divided into:
• Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which
contains base address of each page in physical memory
• Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical
memory address that is sent to the memory unit
page number page offset
p d
m -n n
• For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n
22. Paging Hardware
• Each operating system has its own methods for storing page
tables.
• Some allocate a page table for each process.
• When the dispatcher is told to start a process, it must reload the user
registers and define the correct hardware page-table values from the
stored user page table.
• The hardware implementation of the page table can be
done in several ways.
In the simplest case
The page table is implemented as a set of
dedicated registers.
23. • Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the
page table.
Page-table Base Register (PTBR)
• The standard solution to this problem is to
use a special, small, fastlookup hardware
cache called a translation look-aside buffer
(TLB).
• The percentage of times that the page number of
interest is found in the TLB is called the hit ratio.
24. Protection
Memory protection in a paged environment is accomplished by protection bits
associated with each frame.
• One bit can define a page to be read–write or read-
only.
Valid–Invalid Bit
• One additional bit is generally attached
to each entry in the page table: a
valid–invalid bit.
25. Shared Pages
• An advantage of paging is the possibility of
sharing common code.
• This consideration is particularly important in a
time-sharing environment.
• If the text editor consists of 150 KB of code and 50 KB of data space,
we need 8,000 KB to support the 40 users.
• If the code is reentrant code (or pure code),