White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
There are five different leukocytes that accomplish specific tasks based on their abilities and the type of invaders they are fighting. They are called neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils comprise granulocytes whereas monocytes and lymphocytes comprise agranulocytes.
This is a powerpoint presentation on the Topic of Diseases of the immune system, part 1 - Chapter 6, based on Robbin's textbook of pathology. Prepared by Dr. Ashish Jawarkar, who is Assistant professor at Parul institute of medical sciences and research, Vadodara. Please subscribe to our youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw . Our facebook page: facebook.com/pathologybasics. Instagram handle @pathologybasics
Plasma proteins, the components of plasma proteins, the protein fractions and condition causing the alteration in the each protein fraction. Clinical implications of the each fraction, the electrophorotic pattern of plasma protein. Acute phase proteins which include the positive and negative phase proteins.
This is a powerpoint presentation on the Topic of Diseases of the immune system, part 1 - Chapter 6, based on Robbin's textbook of pathology. Prepared by Dr. Ashish Jawarkar, who is Assistant professor at Parul institute of medical sciences and research, Vadodara. Please subscribe to our youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwjkzK-YnJ-ra4HMOqq3Fkw . Our facebook page: facebook.com/pathologybasics. Instagram handle @pathologybasics
Plasma proteins, the components of plasma proteins, the protein fractions and condition causing the alteration in the each protein fraction. Clinical implications of the each fraction, the electrophorotic pattern of plasma protein. Acute phase proteins which include the positive and negative phase proteins.
Pathology Special Stains for FFPE Tissue StainingBioGenex
Special stains refer to alternative staining techniques that are used when H&E stains do not provide all the cellular information required. These techniques use a variety of dyes and methods so that pathologists can visualize tissue morphology and detect the presence of particular cell types, structures or pathogens (e.g. bacteria).BioGenex offers broadest special stain menu anywhere (over 30 special stains), including:
Grocott’s Methenamine Silver (GMS) Stain
Reticulin Stains
Trichrome Stains
Giemsa Stain
Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Stains
The leucocytes develop from the multipotent hematopoietic stem cell
which then gives rise to a stem cell committed to formation of
leucocytes. Both these cells cannot be identified morphologically by
routine methods. The various types of leucocytes are granulocytes
(neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils), monocytes and lymphocytes.
The three cell types develop separately an accordingly these processes
will be discussed separately
Platelets also called thrombocytes are tiny blood cells that help your body form clots to stop bleeding. If one of your blood vessels gets damaged, it sends out signals to the platelets. The platelets then rush to the site of damage. they form a plug (clot) to fix the damage.
Normal Blood count: 1.5‐4lakh/ μL of blood
The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly
The retina is a thin layer of tissue that lines the back of the eye on the inside. It is located near the optic nerve. The purpose of the retina is to receive light that the lens has focused, convert the light into neural signals, and send these signals on to the brain for visual recognition. The two layers of the optic cup will further differentiate into the retina of the mature eye. ... The outer layer of the posterior 4/5 will become the pigment layer of the retina, and the inner one will become the neural retina.
THERE ARE VARIOUS FACTORS AFFECTING DRUG ACTION.
THEY MAY BE SUBJECT OR DRUG RELATED AND ARE AS FOLLOWS :
• BODY SIZE
• BODY WEIGHT OR BODY SURFACE AREA
• AGE
• SEX
• RACE OR SPECIES
• DOSE
• PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE
• PATHOLOGICAL STATE
• PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE
• GENETIC FACTOR
What is identity ? Determination of individuality of a person. Identification of a person or a dead body means recognition of that person or dead body.
It is very important to establish identity of a person especially in forensic cases
Part of speech- a category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions. In English the main 8 parts of speech are noun, pronoun, adjective, determiner, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
The lac operon- The lac operon (lactose operon) is an operon required for the transport and metabolism of lactose in Escherichia coli and many other enteric bacteria. This operon contains genes coding for proteins in charge of transporting lactose into the cytosol and digesting it into glucose.This glucose is then used to make energy.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
6. Neutrophil
Cell type Diameter
(µm)
Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic
granules
Granulocyte 10‐14 Blue violet
2‐6 lobes, connected by
chromatin thread
Seen clearly through
cytoplasm
Blue Fine, closely
packed, violet‐
pink, not seen
separately
Do not cover
nucleus
11. Eosinophil
Cell type Diameter
(µm)
Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic
granules
Granulocy
te
10‐15 Blue –violet
2 lobes
Lobes connected by
thick chromatin strand
Seen clearly through
cytoplasm
Light pink‐
red
Large, coarse
Uniform sized
Brick red –orange
Seen separately
Do not cover
nucleus
12. Composition of Eosinophil granules
• MBP: Major basic protein: Disrupts the membrane of
parasites&
• induces histamine release from
• Basophils& mast cells
• ECP: Eosinophilic cationic protein: Binds to heparin &
neutralises its
• anticoagulant activity
• EDN: Eosinophil derived neurotoxin: Neurotoxin acting
on myelinated nerves
• EPO: Eosinophil peroxidase: A sticky protein : adheres
to host cells & mast cells
13. Functions of Eosinophils
• Specialise in dealing with parasites which are too
large to be phagocytosed
• Chemicals released by degranulation are toxic to
larvae of parasites
• Also degrade histamine & inhibit mast cell
degranulation. Thus they decrease the intensity
of allergic reactions
• Show phagocytosis but are less efficient than
neutrophils
• Especially abundant in the mucosa of GIT,
respiratory & urinary tracts
15. Basophil
Cell
type
Diameter
(µm)
Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic
granules
Granulo
cyte
10‐15 Blue‐violet
S shaped
Not clearly
seen because
overlaid with
granules
Bluish Large
Very coarse
Variable sized
Deep purple
Seen separately
Completely fill the
center & cover
the nucleus
Granules contain
•Heparin
•Histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, eosinophil chemotactic factor
slow reacting substance
18. Monocyte
Cell type Diameter
(µm)
Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic
granules
Agranulocyte 12‐20 Pale blue violet
Large single
Indented or
horse shoe or
kidney shaped
Abundant
Frosty
Slate blue
Amount may
be larger than
that of nucleus
No visible
granules
22. Lymphocyte
Cell type Diameter
(µm)
Nucleus Cytoplasm Cytoplasmic
granules
Small
Lymphocye
Agranulocy
te
7‐9 Deep blue violet
Single, large, round,
almost fills the cell
Condensed lumpy
chromatin , gives ink
spot appearance
Hardly visible
Thin crescent of clear,
light blue cytoplasm
No visible
granules
Large
lymphocyte
Agranulocy
te
10‐15 Deep blue violet
Single, large, round
or oval
Central or eccentric
Large crescent of
clear, light blue
cytoplasm
Amount larger than
in small lymphocyte
No visible
granules
56. Interferons….
Interferon Cellular source Major activity
Alpha Virally infected cells Induction of resistance of cells to
viral infection
Beta Virally infected cells Induction of resistance of cells to
viral infection
Gama Helper T cells
NK cells
Used to enhance killing of
phagocytosed bacteria in chronic
granulomatous disease
58. Natural killer cells
• Kill virally infected and tumour cells
• They have receptors for certain glycoproteins
which appear on the surface of some virally
infected cells
• Surface receptor KIR (Killer Inhibitory Receptor)
interacts with HLA class I molecules on the
surface of normal cells.
• Cancerous cells have modified ligands which do
not bind properly with the receptor therefore the
NK cells kill them
71. Types and functions of T lymphocytes
• Cytotoxic T cells: Destroy transplanted & other foreign
cells
• Helper T cells: Help in the development of the former
TH1 cells: secrete IL‐2 & gamma interferon, concerned
primarily with cellular immunity
TH2 cells: Secrete IL‐4 & IL‐5, interact primarily with B
cells in relation to humoral immunity
• Memory T cells: Produce an accelerated response to a
second exposure of antigen
• Suppressor T cells: Help in immune tolerance
84. Structure of immunoglobulins
• Monomer:Basic unit : 2light+2 heavy chains
• Polymers: 2‐5 basic units + J chain that holds
the units together
• Amino acids of L and H chains form loops known
as domains
• Variable region : NH2 terminal
• Hypervariable region: amino acid sequences
unique to that polypeptide chain
• Constant portion: carboxy terminal
89. Emperical categorization
• Immunoregulatory cytokines: Involved in activation
growth & differentiation of Lymphocytes & Monocytes
Eg. IL‐2, IL‐4, TGF‐beta
• Proinflammatory cytokines: Produced predominantly
by mononuclear phagocytes in response to infectious
agents
Eg. IL‐1, TNF alpha, IL‐6, IL‐8
• Regulating immature leukocyte growth &
differentiation
Eg. IL‐3, IL‐7, GM‐CSF
90. Who
name
Function Heavy
Chain
(Sub
classes)
Structure Properties
IgG Complement
activation
γ 1, γ2,
γ3, γ4
Monomer Can cross placenta
Secreted in milk, saliva,
nasal, lacrimal secretions
Not in CSF
Appear late in response to
infection
Ig A Localized
protection in
external
secretions
α1, α2 Monomer,
Dimer
Mucosal defense
IgM Complement
activation
µ1, µ2 Pentamer Intravascular
Appears early in response to
infection
Much more effective than
IgG
91. Who
name
Function Heavy
chain
Structure Properties
Ig D Antigen recognition
by B cells
δ Monomer Found in trace amounts in
plasma
Function unknown
Acts as antigen recognition
site on the surface of B cells
Ig E Reagin activity
Release histamine
from basophils &
mast cells
ε Monomer Secreted in helminthic
infections
Atopic allergy
Can invoke mast cell
triggered immediate
hypersensitivity reactions
117. TYPE I Hypersensitivity
Classic allergy
• Mediated by IgE attached to Mast cells.
• The symptoms resulting from allergic responses
are known as anaphylaxis.
• Includes: Hay fever, asthma, eczema, bee stings, food
allergies.
118. Allergens
• Allergens are nonparasite antigens that can
stimulate a type I hypersensitivity response.
• Allergens bind to IgE and trigger
degranulation of chemical mediators.
120. Characteristics of allergens
• Small 15-40,000 MW proteins.
• Specific protein components
– Often enzymes.
• Low dose of allergen
• Mucosal exposure
121.
122. Mechanisms of allergic response
Sensitization
• The IgE can attach to Mast cells by Fc
receptor, which increases the life span of the
IgE.
• Half-life of IgE in serum is days whereas
attached to FcR it is increased to months.
129. TYPE III
Antigen antibody immune complexes.
IgG mediated
Immune Complex Disease
• Large amount of antigen and antibodies form
complexes in blood.
• If not eliminated can deposit in capillaries or
joints and trigger inflammation.
130. TYPE III
Immune Complexes
• PMNs and macrophages bind to immune complexes via
FcR and phagocytize the complexes.
BUT
• If unable to phagocytize the immune complexes can
cause inflammation via C’ activation ---> C3a C4a, C5a
and "frustrated phagocytes".
131. TYPE III
Immune Complex Disease
"Frustrated Phagocytes"
• If neutrophils and macrophages are unable to
phagocytize the immune complexes these cells
will degranulate in the area of immune complex
deposition and trigger inflammation.
• Unable to eat -------try to digest outside cell.
132. TYPE III
Immune Complex Disease
Localized disease
• Deposited in joints causing local inflammation =
arthritis.
• Deposited in kidneys = glomerulonephritis.
133. TYPE III
Immune Complex Disease
• Serum sickness from large amounts of antigen
such as injection of foreign serum.
• Serum sickness is usually transient immune complex disease
with removal of antigen source.
134.
135. Delayed type hypersensitivity
Th1 cells and macrophages
• DTH response is from:
– Th1 cells release cytokines to activate macrophages
causing inflammation and tissue damage.
– Continued macrophage activation can cause chronic
inflammation resulting in tissue lesions, scarring, and
granuloma formation.
• Delayed is relative because DTH response arise 24-72
hours after exposure rather than within minutes.
136. Stages of Type IV DTH
Sensitization stage
• Memory Th1 cells against DTH antigens are
generated by dendritic cells during the
sensitization stage.
• These Th1 cells can activate macrophages and
trigger inflammatory response.
137. Stages of Type IV DTH
Effector stage
• Secondary contact yields what we call DTH.
• Th1 memory cells are activated and produce
cytokines.
– IFN-, TNF-and TNF- which cause tissue
destruction, inflammation.
– IL-2 that activates T cells and CTLs.
– Chemokines- for macrophage recruitment.
– IL-3, GM-CSF for increased monocyte/macrophage
138. Stages of Type IV DTH
Effector stage
Secondary exposure to antigen
• Inflamed area becomes red and fluid filled can
form lesion.
– From tissue damage there is activation of clotting
cascades and tissue repair.
• Continued exposure to antigen can cause chronic
inflammation and result in granuloma formation.
139. Type IV DTH
Contact dermatitis
• The response to poison oak is a classic Type IV.
– Small molecules act as haptens and complex with skin
proteins to be taken up by APCs and presented to Th1
cells to get sensitization.
– During secondary exposure Th1 memory cells become
activated to cause DTH.
141. Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH)
DTH is a type of immune
response classified by
Th1 and macrophage
activation that results in
tissue damage.
DTH can be the result of
Chronic infection or
Exposure to some antigens.
143. Human Immunodefficiency Virus(HIV)
• A retrovirus
• Virus binds to CD4 cells
• Decrease in CD 4 cells
• Failure of proliferation of CD8 & B lymphocytes
• Death from infections due to normally non
pathogenic bacteria
• Normal ratio of CD4 to CD 8 cells is 1.2‐3.0
• Permanent & progressive decrease in AIDS