Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that can infect humans and animals. It is caused by pathogenic Leptospira bacteria transmitted primarily through contact with infected animal urine. In cattle, the most common strains are L. hardjo and L. pomona, which infect the kidneys and genital tract. Humans can contract leptospirosis through contact with contaminated soil or water, especially in agricultural or outdoor settings. Symptoms in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches and potentially serious complications like meningitis or kidney failure if left untreated. The bacteria can survive for extended periods in moist environments. Prevention involves protective clothing, good hygiene and livestock vaccination/treatment programs.
Lead is a blue-gray, heavy, soft metallic element that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. It is a malleable metal, so it can be easily worked - you can hammer it into protective sheets or make pipes and bend them easily. It is dense, and has good shielding protection against radiation, so it is used as ballast or to shield against penetrating forms of ionizing radiation. Metallic lead is tasteless and odorless, although some of the oxides and salts of lead taste sweet. (This sweet taste of lead salts is a source of problems for children!). Lead is insoluble in water, but some of the salts do dissolve, hence lead salts can be carried long distances in water supplies. Lead fumes will be easily formed when lead is heated. Although there is not a lot of lead in the earth’s crust – lead is ubiquitous, especially in modern industry.
Lead is a blue-gray, heavy, soft metallic element that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. It is a malleable metal, so it can be easily worked - you can hammer it into protective sheets or make pipes and bend them easily. It is dense, and has good shielding protection against radiation, so it is used as ballast or to shield against penetrating forms of ionizing radiation. Metallic lead is tasteless and odorless, although some of the oxides and salts of lead taste sweet. (This sweet taste of lead salts is a source of problems for children!). Lead is insoluble in water, but some of the salts do dissolve, hence lead salts can be carried long distances in water supplies. Lead fumes will be easily formed when lead is heated. Although there is not a lot of lead in the earth’s crust – lead is ubiquitous, especially in modern industry.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their effects on the environmentDipo Elegbs
The aim of this presentation is to review
contemporary information on PAH pollution,
PAH degradation, the fate and risk associated
with the presence of these compounds in the
environment and also to enlighten on some
well-known possible remediations.
The presentation provides a brief background on phosphorus, introduces phosphates, gives examples of forms of phosphates. It further describes how to test for the forms of phosphates as well as how to regulate water phosphate level. It ends with some basic facts "Did you know".
The new virus has made the jump from pigs to humans and has demonstrated it can also pass from human to human. This is why it is demanding so much attention from health authorities. The virus passes from human to human like other types of flu, either through coughing, sneezing, or by touching infected surfaces, although little is known about how the virus acts on humans.
Anthrax is a life-threatening infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that normally affects animals, especially ruminants (such as goats, cattle, sheep, and horses). Anthrax can be transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals or their products.Anthrax cannot be spread directly from person to person, but a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Antibiotics often cure anthrax if it is diagnosed early. But many people don't know they have anthrax until it is too late to treat
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their effects on the environmentDipo Elegbs
The aim of this presentation is to review
contemporary information on PAH pollution,
PAH degradation, the fate and risk associated
with the presence of these compounds in the
environment and also to enlighten on some
well-known possible remediations.
The presentation provides a brief background on phosphorus, introduces phosphates, gives examples of forms of phosphates. It further describes how to test for the forms of phosphates as well as how to regulate water phosphate level. It ends with some basic facts "Did you know".
The new virus has made the jump from pigs to humans and has demonstrated it can also pass from human to human. This is why it is demanding so much attention from health authorities. The virus passes from human to human like other types of flu, either through coughing, sneezing, or by touching infected surfaces, although little is known about how the virus acts on humans.
Anthrax is a life-threatening infectious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that normally affects animals, especially ruminants (such as goats, cattle, sheep, and horses). Anthrax can be transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals or their products.Anthrax cannot be spread directly from person to person, but a person's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores. Antibiotics often cure anthrax if it is diagnosed early. But many people don't know they have anthrax until it is too late to treat
Zoonoses :- derived from the Greek words
Zoon- Animal & Noson – Disease
Zoonoses was coined and first used by Rudolf Virchow who defined it for communicable diseases.
Diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans - WHO 1959
Of the 1415 microbial diseases affecting humans, 61% are zoonotic with 13% species regarded as emerging or reemerging
Link b/w human & animals with their surrounding are very close especially in developing countries
Important Zoonotic disease and its prevention and control By: Dr.Manoj karkimanojj123
Zoonosis are those disease and infection which are naturally transmitted between animals and human. (WHO & FAO, 1959).
Zoonosis word derived from Greek word “ZOO” means Animals and “NOSES” means Disease.
One Health is not a new concept, but it has become more important in recent years because many factors have changed the interaction among human, animals and the environment. These changes have caused the emergence and re-emergence of many disease.
This is a PowerPoint presentation on the Plague, also known as the Bubonic Plague and the Black Death. The presentation includes an identification of the agent involved, who is at risk, where it is most common, modes of transmission, clinical manifestations of infection, resistance, and how it could be used in bioterrorism.
THIS VIDEO EXPLAINS ABOUT LEPTOSPIROSIS IN EASY WAY Important links- NOTES- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ youtube channel https://www.youtube.com/c/MYSTUDENTSU... CHANEL PLAYLIST- ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... CHILD HEALTH NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... FIRST AID- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... HCM- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... FUNDAMENTALS OF NURSING- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... COMMUNICABLE DISEASES- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... MSN- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... HINDI ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... ENGLISH ONLY- https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list... facebook profile- https://www.facebook.com/suresh.kr.lrhs/ FACEBOOK PAGE- https://www.facebook.com/My-Student-S... facebook group NURSING NOTES- https://www.facebook.com/groups/24139... FOR MAKING EASY NOTES YOU CAN ALSO VISIT MY BLOG – BLOGGER- https://mynursingstudents.blogspot.com/ Instagram- https://www.instagram.com/mystudentsu... Twitter- https://twitter.com/student_system?s=08 #LEPTOSPIROSIS,#FUNCTIONS,#SOURCE, #DEFICIENCY,#DISEASE,#NIGHTBLINDNESS#XEROPHTHALMIA,#BITOTSPOT,#CORNEALXEROSIS, #CONJUNCIVALXEROSIS, YELLOWFRUITS,#MYSTUDENTSUPPORTSYSTEM, #rashes,#nursingclasses, #communityhealthnursing,#ANM, #GNM, #BSCNURING,#NURSINGSTUDENTS, #WHO,#NURSINGINSTITUTION,#COLLEGEOFNURSING,#nursingofficer,#COMMUNITYHEALTHOFFICER
Leptospirosis an emerging public health problem. I have give an overview and skipped Pathogenesis & Surviellance. Tried to keep it short & informative.
Infections spread from animals to human are called zoonotic infections.
The term zoonos is’ Derived from the Greek
ZOON (animals) and NOSES (diseases)
Pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals cause more than 60% of infectious diseases in man.
Leptospirosis: Its Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Control Chandrani Goswami
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira.
Disease was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886
In 1908, a Japanese research group led by Ryokichi Inada and Yutaka to first identified the bacterium as the causative agent of leptospirosis and noted its presence in rats in 1916
Generally it is transmitted by the infected urine of rodents.
Leptospirosis is in the group of 17 neglected tropical diseases, categorized by WHO.
Leptospirosis is an underreported disease, and there are no reliable global incidence figures (WHO, 2015)
Synonyms: Weil's Syndrome, Weil-Vasiliev disease, Swineherd's disease, Rice-field fever, Waterborne fever, Nanukayami fever, Cane-cutter fever, Swamp fever, Mud fever, Stuttgart disease, and Canicola fever.
Similar to Leptospirosis, Plague, Scrub typhus (20)
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
1. 1
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects farm animals, wildlife and humans.
There are many different strains or serovars, carried by rodents and many other wild
animals including rabbits, skunks and birds. Cattle, pigs and dogs are the main
domestic animal carriers of leptospirosis. Leptospirosis in cattle is generally caused
by one of two strains: Leptospira hardjoor Leptospira pomona. These two bacteria
infect the kidney and genital tract of cattle.
Causative Agent
Leptospirosis is primarily a disease of animals, occasionally infect humans. It is
caused by pathogenic spirochete of the genus leptospira that traditionally consist of
two species, Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira biflexa. The former includes all
pathogenic serovars and the later includes the saprophytic strains. Leptospira strains
have been divided into 26 serogroups, ofwhich 2 belong to saprophytic leptospires.
Each serogroup consists ofseveral strains designated as seorovars. Nearly 300 host
adopted leptospiral serovars are naturally carried by more than a dozen species of
rodents, wild and domestic animals. The moderate to highly conducive abundantly
available variety of hosts, results in successful perpetuation of this organism. The
leptospira serovars predominantly present in India are L.andamana, L.pomona,
L.grippotyphosa, L.hebdomadis, L.semoranga, L.javanica, L.autumnalis,
L.canicola.
Pathogenesis
Leptospira enter the bodythrough exposed mucous membranes in the mouth, eyes,
skin abrasions or gastrointestinal tract. The incubation period for leptospirosis is 4
to 20 days. The leptospires circulate in the blood for7 days. Theleptospires replicate
2. 2
in the liver, kidneys, lungs, genital tract and central nervous system. The bacteria
remain in the kidneys and may be shed in the urine for a few weeks to many months
after infection.
Clinical signs
Leptospirosis is less commonin cattle under 15 months of age than in older animals.
The clinical signs of infected calves include;
High fever
Hemolytic anemia (breakdown of red blood cells)
Hemoglobinuria (blood/hemoglobin in urine).
Jaundice (yellowing of tissues)
Meningitis and death.
Myalgia
Headache
Conjuctival suffusion
Oliguria/Anuria and/or proteinuria
Nausea
vomiting
Abdominal pain.
Diagnosis Serological evaluation of a herd or pen can infer antibody production
against leptospira. Urine can be tested using dark-field microscopy and/or
immunofluorescence. However, these tests are expensive and the dark-field
3. 3
microscopy isn’t very sensitive. The gold standard is bacterial culture. Leptospira
can be isolated from blood, urine, kidney, liver or any other tissue infected by the
bacteria.
Transmission
Transmission of leptospira often involves direct contactwith infected urine, placenta
or milk. It can be transmitted venereally or transplacentally. The most common
transmission is through direct or indirect contact with infected urine. Dairies
commonly have leptospira contaminations in their environment. Dairy feeder calves
are probably the largest carriers of leptospira in commercial feedyards. Dairy calves
commonly suckle the sheaths and scrotums of other calves in the pen. This would
be a direct contamination of infected urine from carriers by this suckling habit.
Leptospira can also survive in the environment. Leptospira favors moist
environments and moderately warm temperatures. Leptospira can survive for
extended periods in stagnant water (i.e. waterholes in pens). Survival of leptospiral
is brief in dry soil, cold temperatures or very hot temperatures. Therefore leptospira
outbreaks are most common in dairy calves in the fall and spring.
Factors Responsible For The Emergence Of Leptospirosis
The conditions that are favourable for maintenance and transmission of
Leptospirosis are:
a) Reservoir and carrier hosts:
Leptospirosis has a very wide range of natural rodent, and non-rodent
reservoir hosts especially rats, cattle, dogs, foxes, rabbits, etc. The animals act
as carriers of the leptospires and excrete large number of leptospires in their
urine, thus responsible for the contamination of large and small water bodies
as well as soil.
4. 4
b) Flooding, drainage congestion
Flooding and drainage congestion may be risk factors for contamination of water
bodies with infected animal urine. Water logged areas may force rodent population
to abandon their burrows and contaminate the stagnant water by their urine.
c)Animal-Human Interface
The potential for infection increases through exposure from occupational or
recreational activities without proper protection. Poor cleanliness/sanitation in
recreational areas may attract animal host such as rodent thus increases the risk of
contamination. These may be due to poor maintenance of facilities, improper
disposal of waste and public attitude/ apathy.
d) Human host risk factors
Several sections of the population are more susceptible to infection such as those
not previously exposed to the bacteria in their environment (naïve immunities), and
those with chronic disease and open skin wounds.
HIGH RISK GROUPS
Exposure depends on chance contacts between human and infected animals or a
contaminated environment through occupationaland/orrecreational activities. Some
groups are at higher risk to contract the disease such as:
Workers in the agricultural sectors
Sewerage workers
Livestock handlers
Pet shops workers
5. 5
Military personnel
Search and rescue workers in high risk environment
Disaster relief workers (e.g. during floods)
People involved with outdoor/recreational activities such as water recreational
activities, jungle trekking, etc.
Travelers who are not previously exposed to the bacteria in their environment
especially those travelers and/or participants in jungle adventure trips or outdoor
sport activities
People with chronic disease and open skin wounds.
Zoonosis
Leptospirosis is a human pathogen. Thebacteria can get into your bodythrough cuts
and scratches, the lining of your mouth, throat and eyes after contact with infected
urine, blood orcontaminated water. Care should betaken when necropsying animals
suspected of being infected with leptospira.
How can we prevent exposure?
1) Cover all cuts and broken skin before and during work
2) Wear protective clothing and eyewear when necropsying
3) Wash you hands after handling any animal before eating, drinking, smoking,
dipping, or chewing tobacco.
Human clinical signs of leptospirosis:
1) fever and flu like symptoms
6. 6
2) lethargy, aching joints, headaches
3) long period of sickness with the potential for renal failure.
Plague is a bacterial infection, which Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of this
disease, and mostly affects (lungs and lymph nodes and blood vessels ). Plague is a
fatal disease , which approximately more than 200 million people have been dead
by this disease.
The word of plague is believed to come from the Latin word plāga ("blow, wound")
Bubonic Plague
Bubo is a Greek word which is termed for swollen lymph glandes. It is the acute
inflammation and painful swellings of the lymph nodes , it also is the most common
type of Plague.
It will occur when an infected rodent or flea bites you.
The Bacteria will spread through the lymphatic vessels of the infected human until
it reaches a lymph node, where it stimulates the inflammation that causes the lymph
nodes to expand. The expansion of lymph nodes is the cause of the characteristic
lymphadenopathy "bubo".
• Symptoms : sudden high fever , headache , body pain , chills etc.
Pneumonic plague
Is the another type of plague , which arises from infection of the lungs. It causes
coughing and sneezing.
7. 7
Pneumonic plague is the only form of plague that can be transmitted from person to
person.
The course of the disease is rapid, unless diagnosed and treated soon enough,
typically within a few hours . Death may follow in one to six days.
• Symptoms : sudden pneumonia , respiratory failure , watery mucus etc.
Septicemic plague
When the bacteria enter the bloodstream directly and multiply there, it’s known as
septicemic plague. When they’re left untreated, bothbubonic and pneumonic plague
can lead to septicemic plague.
Septicemic plague is the least common of there form with a mortality rate close to
one hundred percent.
Yersinia Pestis is a gram negative and noncapsulated, facultative anaerobic
microorganism (family enterobacteriaceae)
It can infect humans and animals via the oriental rat flea which called (Xenopsylla
Cheopis).
It can reproduceinside cells, so even if phagocytosed they can still survive, because
it produces an anti-phagocytic slime layer.
Yersinia pestis was discovered in 1894 by Alexandre yersin .
• Symptoms : fever , chills , body pain , severe abdominal pain etc.
8. 8
Transmissions:
Air droplet : coughing or sneezing on another person
Direct physical contact : touching an infected person, including sexual
contact.
Indirect contact : usually by touching contaminated soil or a contaminated
surface
Fecal-oral transmission : usually from contaminated food or water sources
Vector borne transmission : carried by insects or other animals.
When a flea bites a human and contaminates the wound with regurgitated blood,
the plague carrying bacteria are passed into the tissue. Once in the body, the
bacteria can enter the lymphatic system.
Diagnostic Technique
1. A blood test can reveal if you have septicemic plague.
2.To check for bubonic plague, use a needle to take a sample of the fluid in
swollen lymph nodes.
3.To check for pneumonic plague, fluid will be extracted from your airways by
a tube that is inserted down your nose or mouth and down your throat. This is
called an endoscopy.
4. By using X-ray .
Treatment
If diagnosed in time ,the various forms of plague are usually highly responsive to
antibiotic therapy. The antibiotics often used are Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol
9. 9
and Tetracycline. the newer generation of antibiotics are Gentamicin and
Doxycycline have proven to use against this bacteria.
Prevention and Control
• Isolate infected animals
− Limit number of people in contact
− Personal protection
Surgical mask, gloves, eye protection
• Flea control
− Most effective method to break the chain of transmission (Rodent-flea-man)
− Use of insecticidal spraying (DDT and BHC), use malathion in case of
resistance.
− Indoor spraying, Rat burrows should be insufflated with insecticidal dusts.
• Prevent roaming or hunting of pets
• Rodent control
− Eliminate rodent habitat around home
Brush, food sources, firewood, junk
− Undertaken only after insecticide use
• Insect repellents for skin & clothes
• Insecticide use in epizootic areas.
10. 10
Scrub typhus, also known as bush typhus, is a disease caused by a bacteria,
called Orientia tsutsugamushi. Scrub typhus spreads to people through bites of
infected chiggers (larval mites).
Among Rickettsioses, scrub is the commonest
Mite borne infectious disease
Orientia tsutsugamushi
Transmitted through Larval mites or “chiggers”
Belonging to family Trombiculidae
Only larval stages take blood meal
Scrub typhus is transmitted by the mite Leptotrombidium deliense. The vector
mites inhabit sharply demarcated areas in the soil where the microecosystem is
favourable (mite islands). Human beings are infected when they trespass into
these mite islands and are bitten by the mite larvae (chiggers). The mite feeds on
the serum of warm blooded animals only once during its cycle of development,
and adult mites do not feed on man. The microbes are transmitted transovarially
in mites. Scrub typhus normally occurs in a range of mammals, particularly field
mice and rodents.
11. 11
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMPS
Symptoms of scrub typhus usually begin within 10 days of being bitten. Signs
and symptoms may include
• Fever and chills
• Headache
• Body aches and muscle pain
• A dark, scab-like region at the site of the chigger bite (also known as eschar)
• Mental changes, ranging from confusion to coma
12. 12
• Enlarged lymph nodes
• Rash
• People with severe illness may develop organ failure and bleeding, which can
be fatal if left untreated.
• Five to eight days after the onset of fever, a macular or maculopapular rash
may appear on the trunk and later extend to the arms and the legs in a small
proportion of patients Complications of scrub typhus infection include
pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) like picture,
myocarditis, encephalitis, hepatitis, DIC, acute kidney injury, acute pancreatitis,
transient adrenal insufficiency etc.
TREATMENT
Scrub typhus should be treated with the antibiotic doxycycline. Doxycycline can
be used in persons of any age
PREVENTION
• No vaccine is available to prevent scrub typhus.
• Reduce your risk of getting scrub typhus by avoiding contact with infected
chiggers.
• When traveling to areas where scrub typhus is common, avoid areas with lots
of vegetation and brush where chiggers may be found. Continued,
• If you will be spending time outdoors:• Use Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)-registered insect repellentsexternal icon containing DEET or other active
ingredients registered for use against chiggers, on exposed skin and clothing.
13. 13
• If you have a baby or child:
– Dress your child in clothing that covers arms and legs, or cover crib, stroller,
and baby carrier with mosquito netting.
– Do not apply insect repellent onto a child’s hands, eyes, or mouth or on cuts
or irritated skin.
– Adults: Spray insect repellent onto your hands and then apply to child’s face.
– Treat clothing and gear with permethrin or purchase permethrin-treated items.
Murine typhus, also known as endemic typhus, Mexican typhus, shop typhus,
rat typhus, urban typhus, and flea borne typhus, is caused by the rickettsial
organism Rickettsia typhi (formerly Rickettsia mooseri). Although this zoonosis
is typically maintained in peridomestic rats by flea transmission, humans canalso
be infected. Murine typhus is one of the most prevalent rickettsial diseases of
humans, but it is underdiagnosed and its importance is generally unappreciated.
Murine typhus (Endemic typhus) is a zoonotic disease transmitted by arthropod
vectors that prevails in urban and suburban areas. The etiological agent that
causes disease are Rickettsia typhi and Rickettsia felis. The transmission of R.
typhi and R. felis are associated with Ctenocephalides felis, the cat flea, and
Xenopsylla cheopis, the rat flea. The reservoirs of Murine typhus are domestic
cats, rats, and peridomestic opossums.
The pathogens R. typhi and R. felis are introduced by an arthropod ingesting a
blood meal infected with the disease. The pathogen Rickettsia is an obligate
intracellular coccobacillus alphaproteobacterium. As the pathogen circulates in
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the flea’s body, the pathogens that replicate in the midgut epithelial cells are shed
and excreted in the feces.
Urban Cycle: The rat is the host for the flea X. cheopis. The pathogen is
introduced into the circulatory system of the rat and the Rickettsia is transmitted
back to the flea on subsequent blood meals. The rat flea prefers to feed on rats;
however, it will search for other hosts if rats are not available. The urban cycle is
a route of infection common in overcrowded cities with unsanitary conditions.
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suburban cycle
In the suburban cycle, the reservoirs are feral and domestic cats and
peridomestic opossums.
Risk of domestic cats acquiring the infected fleas.
Feral cats & opossums interact in suburban neighborhoods, entering
backyards if food, water and nesting sites are available.
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Infection: The incubation time of 7 to 14 days passes before onset of the illness.
The onset begins with a fever that lasts 3 to 7 days and will cause a severe headache,
myalgia, nausea, and vomiting. After one week, a maculopapular rash appears on
the trunk and axilla parts of the body that lasts 1 to 4 days.
Diagnosis:Misdiagnosis is commonsince the illness is similar to other dieases. Flea
bites found on the body during a medical examination is indicator for doctors to
considertesting for Rickettsia as a possible pathogen. The differentiation of R. typhi
& R. felis are confirmed through PCR testing and sequencing of the genes.
Treatment:
Murine Typhus is a treatable illness with antibiotic therapy. The mortality rate with
antibiotic use is 1% and 4% without antibiotic use The antibiotic, doxycycline has
proven effective in killing both R. typhi and R. felis pathogens and so far, no
resistance to the antibiotic treatment has occurred.
Prevention & Control: Close and or cover any open cracks, crevices or openings
that rodents, cats, or opossums can enter to hide or nest.
Remove any overgrown foliage and clutter in the yard, which are ideal harborage
sites. Remove all ripe fruit from trees and pick up fallen fruit.
Remove all possible food and water sources such as bringing in pet food/water
bowls at night. Cover all refuse containers tightly.
Outdoorpets onthe property, ensure proper flea controlis in use. Flea drops, collars,
powders containing larvicides and adulticides, such as fenoxycarb, and permethrin.
Mechanical methods such as washing bedding and vacuuming are an excellent way
to prevent pesticide resistance.
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Vacuuming will remove up to 95% of emerging fleas, 90% of eggs, and 50% of
larvae .
If a flea infestation is out of control contact a local pest control specialist