There are three main types of leishmaniasis caused by parasites transmitted through the bites of infected sandflies. Visceral leishmaniasis affects internal organs and is characterized by fever, enlarged spleen and liver, and can be fatal if not treated. Cutaneous leishmaniasis causes skin sores or ulcers. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis begins as skin sores but can later affect the mouth and nose tissues. Prevention efforts include insecticide-treated bed nets, controlling infected rodent populations, and early diagnosis/treatment of cases.
The document defines and provides examples of important disease terms including communicable and non-communicable diseases. It then summarizes several common communicable diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths, and fungi including their symptoms, modes of transmission, prevention and treatment methods. Examples of non-communicable diseases and genetic disorders are also briefly discussed.
Pneumonic plague is a highly contagious and lethal form of plague that is transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets. It has a very short incubation period of 2-3 days and causes severe pneumonia that can lead to respiratory failure and shock if not treated promptly with antibiotics. Without treatment, pneumonic plague has a mortality rate approaching 100%. It is considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases due to its ability to spread rapidly between humans via the respiratory route. Laboratory testing is required to confirm a diagnosis of pneumonic plague through identification of Yersinia pestis in clinical samples.
Yersinia is a genus of bacteria that includes three medically important species that can cause disease in humans and animals. Yersinia pestis specifically causes plague in humans and other mammals. It is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that was first discovered in 1894. Y. pestis can cause bubonic, pneumonic, or septicemic plague depending on how it enters the body. It is most commonly transmitted to humans via the bite of an infected flea that has acquired the bacteria from an infected rodent.
Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that can infect humans and animals. It is caused by pathogenic Leptospira bacteria transmitted primarily through contact with infected animal urine. In cattle, the most common strains are L. hardjo and L. pomona, which infect the kidneys and genital tract. Humans can contract leptospirosis through contact with contaminated soil or water, especially in agricultural or outdoor settings. Symptoms in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches and potentially serious complications like meningitis or kidney failure if left untreated. The bacteria can survive for extended periods in moist environments. Prevention involves protective clothing, good hygiene and livestock vaccination/treatment programs.
Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. It is typically transmitted via the bite of an infected flea and was responsible for the Black Death pandemic in the 14th century. Plague still occurs globally with 1,000-3,000 reported cases annually. Symptoms include fever, headache, and swollen lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves identifying the bacterium from samples. Treatment involves antibiotics like streptomycin and doxycycline. Vaccines are being developed to prevent pneumonic plague.
Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease caused by Plasmodium parasites. It affects over 100 tropical and subtropical countries and causes hundreds of millions of cases and millions of deaths annually. The disease is transmitted via the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It has a complex life cycle involving sexual reproduction in the mosquito and asexual reproduction in human hosts. Symptoms vary depending on the Plasmodium species but can include fever, chills, flu-like illness, and in severe cases organ damage or death. Diagnosis is via blood smear microscopy or rapid antigen tests. Prevention focuses on mosquito control and use of insecticide-treated bed nets, while treatment involves antimalarial medications
By the end of this presentation we’ll be able to learn about- -Geographical distribution of leishmania parasites- Know the different stages of leishmania parasites and their morphology.-Describe the lifecycle of leishmania.-Causes and pathogenesis of leishmania -Preventive measures of leishmaniasis
The document provides a history of smallpox, describing its origins in ancient Egypt and India. It discusses how smallpox devastated populations before the vaccine was discovered by Edward Jenner in 1796. While the vaccine helped reduce cases, smallpox continued to spread until the World Health Organization led a global campaign that eradicated the disease in 1980. The document also examines the causative variola virus, its transmission method through respiratory droplets, classification of ordinary and malignant types, and pathology of the disease.
The document defines and provides examples of important disease terms including communicable and non-communicable diseases. It then summarizes several common communicable diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths, and fungi including their symptoms, modes of transmission, prevention and treatment methods. Examples of non-communicable diseases and genetic disorders are also briefly discussed.
Pneumonic plague is a highly contagious and lethal form of plague that is transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets. It has a very short incubation period of 2-3 days and causes severe pneumonia that can lead to respiratory failure and shock if not treated promptly with antibiotics. Without treatment, pneumonic plague has a mortality rate approaching 100%. It is considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases due to its ability to spread rapidly between humans via the respiratory route. Laboratory testing is required to confirm a diagnosis of pneumonic plague through identification of Yersinia pestis in clinical samples.
Yersinia is a genus of bacteria that includes three medically important species that can cause disease in humans and animals. Yersinia pestis specifically causes plague in humans and other mammals. It is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that was first discovered in 1894. Y. pestis can cause bubonic, pneumonic, or septicemic plague depending on how it enters the body. It is most commonly transmitted to humans via the bite of an infected flea that has acquired the bacteria from an infected rodent.
Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that can infect humans and animals. It is caused by pathogenic Leptospira bacteria transmitted primarily through contact with infected animal urine. In cattle, the most common strains are L. hardjo and L. pomona, which infect the kidneys and genital tract. Humans can contract leptospirosis through contact with contaminated soil or water, especially in agricultural or outdoor settings. Symptoms in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches and potentially serious complications like meningitis or kidney failure if left untreated. The bacteria can survive for extended periods in moist environments. Prevention involves protective clothing, good hygiene and livestock vaccination/treatment programs.
Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative bacterium that causes bubonic and pneumonic plague in humans. It is typically transmitted via the bite of an infected flea and was responsible for the Black Death pandemic in the 14th century. Plague still occurs globally with 1,000-3,000 reported cases annually. Symptoms include fever, headache, and swollen lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves identifying the bacterium from samples. Treatment involves antibiotics like streptomycin and doxycycline. Vaccines are being developed to prevent pneumonic plague.
Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease caused by Plasmodium parasites. It affects over 100 tropical and subtropical countries and causes hundreds of millions of cases and millions of deaths annually. The disease is transmitted via the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It has a complex life cycle involving sexual reproduction in the mosquito and asexual reproduction in human hosts. Symptoms vary depending on the Plasmodium species but can include fever, chills, flu-like illness, and in severe cases organ damage or death. Diagnosis is via blood smear microscopy or rapid antigen tests. Prevention focuses on mosquito control and use of insecticide-treated bed nets, while treatment involves antimalarial medications
By the end of this presentation we’ll be able to learn about- -Geographical distribution of leishmania parasites- Know the different stages of leishmania parasites and their morphology.-Describe the lifecycle of leishmania.-Causes and pathogenesis of leishmania -Preventive measures of leishmaniasis
The document provides a history of smallpox, describing its origins in ancient Egypt and India. It discusses how smallpox devastated populations before the vaccine was discovered by Edward Jenner in 1796. While the vaccine helped reduce cases, smallpox continued to spread until the World Health Organization led a global campaign that eradicated the disease in 1980. The document also examines the causative variola virus, its transmission method through respiratory droplets, classification of ordinary and malignant types, and pathology of the disease.
Zoonoses :- derived from the Greek words
Zoon- Animal & Noson – Disease
Zoonoses was coined and first used by Rudolf Virchow who defined it for communicable diseases.
Diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans - WHO 1959
Of the 1415 microbial diseases affecting humans, 61% are zoonotic with 13% species regarded as emerging or reemerging
Link b/w human & animals with their surrounding are very close especially in developing countries
Plague is a bacterial disease caused by Yersinia pestis that primarily affects rodents. It can be transmitted to humans via flea bites. In humans, it typically manifests as bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic plague depending on how the bacteria enter the body. Bubonic plague causes swollen lymph nodes, while pneumonic plague is a severe form that causes pneumonia and can spread from person to person. Treatment involves antibiotics such as streptomycin or gentamicin. Prevention focuses on flea control and avoiding contact with infected animals.
Parasitic infections are caused by protozoa and helminth worms. They enter the body through ingestion, arthropod bites, or skin/mucous membrane penetration. Common human parasites include Plasmodium (malaria), Entamoeba histolytica (amoebiasis), Giardia lamblia (giardiasis), and various helminths such as tapeworms and roundworms. Symptoms vary depending on the infecting parasite but may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and organ damage. Treatment involves antiprotozoal or anthelmintic medications.
A comprehensive description of leischmaniasis with its types, transmission, epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control. It also includes details regarding lab diagnosis, disease agent, vector and host.
Purshotam Kumar Sah Kanu's document provides an overview of plague caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Some key points:
- Plague is transmitted from rodents to humans by flea bites and can cause bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic infections in humans. Left untreated it has a high fatality rate.
- There have been three major plague pandemics in human history dating back over 2000 years that killed tens to hundreds of millions. The causative bacterium was isolated in 1894.
- Currently most cases are reported in developing countries in Africa and Asia. Treatment involves antibiotics like streptomycin for 10 days or until fever subsides to prevent spread.
The document discusses several arthropod-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas including malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, encephalitis, epidemic typhus, and bubonic plague. It then focuses on arboviruses, which are viruses transmitted between animals and humans by arthropod vectors like mosquitoes and ticks. Major arboviruses include those in the Togavirus, Bunyavirus, and Flavivirus families that cause diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and eastern and western equine encephalitis.
Human lice and fleas can transmit diseases like epidemic typhus, trench fever, and plague. Lice transmit diseases between humans, while fleas transmit plague between rodents and humans. Bedbugs feed on human blood and can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Kissing bugs transmit Chagas disease in Latin America. Mosquitoes transmit malaria and other parasites between humans and animals. Myiasis is a disease caused by fly larvae feeding on living or dead tissue. Forensic entomology uses insect evidence to estimate time of death in corpses.
Plague is a deadly infectious disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria, which is commonly transmitted to humans by fleas that feed on infected rodents. There are three main forms of plague - bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic - which vary in their symptoms and transmission methods. While plague has caused several pandemics throughout history, it is now treatable with antibiotics when diagnosed early. Public health efforts focus on surveillance of rodent populations and fleas to control outbreaks.
This document discusses infection and infectious diseases. It defines key terms like infection, disease, pathogens, and commensals. It describes how infections are classified, including primary vs secondary infections. It outlines various sources of infection like humans, animals, insects, soil/water, and food. It also explains different methods of transmitting infections, such as contact, inhalation, ingestion, and inoculation.
This document discusses agents of environmental disease, including vector-borne diseases and zoonoses. It provides details on four vector-borne diseases: malaria, which is transmitted through mosquito bites and causes fever and flu-like symptoms; leishmaniasis, spread by sand flies and caused by Leishmania parasites; plague, transmitted by fleas and caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, causing bubonic or pneumonic symptoms; and Lyme disease, transmitted by tick bites and caused by the Borrelia burgdorferi bacterium, causing joint pain, heart issues and neurological problems. It also discusses three zoonotic diseases: Ebola virus, spread between animals and humans and causing hemor
Lecture 3. epid. charact. of vector borne infectionsVasyl Sorokhan
This document summarizes several vector-borne and parenterally transmitted infectious diseases including plague, Lyme disease, malaria, and typhus. It describes the etiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and prevention of each disease. Key details provided include that plague is transmitted by rat fleas and causes a febrile illness, Lyme disease is transmitted by ticks and causes characteristic skin rash and flu-like symptoms, malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes and caused by Plasmodium parasites, and typhus is transmitted by lice or fleas and caused by Rickettsia bacteria.
MALARIA. definition epedimiology and laboratory and managmentABIE10
Artesunate, IV
Uncomplicated: P. falciparum:
First line
Artemether + Lumefantrine
Uncomplicated: P. vivax:
First line
Chloroquine + Primaquine
Mixed infection:
First line
Artemether + Lumefantrine
BY ABIE ASCHALE 47
Introduction to Parasitology & Lab Diagnosis of Parasitic oke.pptDhiniMeilani
The document provides an introduction to parasitology and the diagnosis of parasitic diseases. It notes that parasites infect over a billion people worldwide and cause significant suffering and death. It then summarizes key data on the global burden of major parasitic infections like malaria, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, and Chagas disease. The document goes on to define important parasitology terms and provide taxonomical classifications and life cycle descriptions of important protozoan and helminth parasites, including Plasmodium, Giardia, hookworms, Taenia tapeworms, and Schistosoma. It also describes the epidemiology, symptoms, pathology, diagnosis and treatment of select parasitic diseases.
The document discusses different types of infections and their modes of transmission. It defines infection as the lodgment and multiplication of a parasite in a host's tissues. Infections are classified as viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic. Viral infections involve a virus infiltrating and replicating within a host's cells. Bacterial infections are caused by bacteria that can enter through wounds or openings. Fungal infections are often mild but some can be serious. Parasitic infections involve protozoa or other parasites that thrive in moist environments. Infections can be transmitted directly from person to person through droplets, skin contact, or body fluids, or indirectly through vectors, contaminated objects, food/water, animals, or the environment
This document discusses communicable diseases and their prevention and control. It defines communicable diseases as those spread from person to person by pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. The document explains the chain of infection, which involves a pathogen, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, susceptible host and portal of entry. It then provides examples of common communicable diseases like influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and what type of pathogen causes each. The rest of the document discusses different types of pathogens in more detail and how to prevent transmission of diseases through proper hygiene, sanitation and food preparation.
powerpoint for mapeh 8 (health 8) quarter 3.pptxELLAMAYDECENA2
- Pathogens are organisms that cause disease and include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and parasites.
- Bacteria and fungi are important in ecosystems but some species can cause illness in humans. Viruses and parasites rely on living hosts.
- Common diseases result from pathogens like influenza and SARS-CoV-2 viruses, malaria protozoa, and roundworm infections. Those with weak immune systems face higher risks. Prevention focuses on hygiene, sanitation, and treatment of infections.
Spirochetes are a phylum of distinctive, helically coiled bacteria that includes important human pathogens. They have long, thin cells enclosed by an outer membrane and inner periplasmic space containing endocellular flagella. Well-known pathogenic genera include Treponema, which causes syphilis, yaws, and bejel; Borrelia, which causes Lyme disease; and Leptospira, which causes leptospirosis. Spirochetes can infect humans through contact with contaminated body fluids or ticks/lice and cause symptoms ranging from skin sores and rashes to neurological, cardiac, and liver problems if untreated.
This document summarizes several arthropod vectors of human and animal pathogens. It discusses the pubic louse, bed bug, kissing bugs, fleas, mosquitoes, black flies, deer flies and horse flies. Key vectors mentioned include the oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) for plague, Culex mosquitoes for filariasis, Aedes aegypti for yellow fever and dengue, and Anopheles mosquitoes for malaria. Control of vectors focuses on sanitation, removal of breeding sites, and use of insecticides.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Zoonoses :- derived from the Greek words
Zoon- Animal & Noson – Disease
Zoonoses was coined and first used by Rudolf Virchow who defined it for communicable diseases.
Diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans - WHO 1959
Of the 1415 microbial diseases affecting humans, 61% are zoonotic with 13% species regarded as emerging or reemerging
Link b/w human & animals with their surrounding are very close especially in developing countries
Plague is a bacterial disease caused by Yersinia pestis that primarily affects rodents. It can be transmitted to humans via flea bites. In humans, it typically manifests as bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic plague depending on how the bacteria enter the body. Bubonic plague causes swollen lymph nodes, while pneumonic plague is a severe form that causes pneumonia and can spread from person to person. Treatment involves antibiotics such as streptomycin or gentamicin. Prevention focuses on flea control and avoiding contact with infected animals.
Parasitic infections are caused by protozoa and helminth worms. They enter the body through ingestion, arthropod bites, or skin/mucous membrane penetration. Common human parasites include Plasmodium (malaria), Entamoeba histolytica (amoebiasis), Giardia lamblia (giardiasis), and various helminths such as tapeworms and roundworms. Symptoms vary depending on the infecting parasite but may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and organ damage. Treatment involves antiprotozoal or anthelmintic medications.
A comprehensive description of leischmaniasis with its types, transmission, epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control. It also includes details regarding lab diagnosis, disease agent, vector and host.
Purshotam Kumar Sah Kanu's document provides an overview of plague caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Some key points:
- Plague is transmitted from rodents to humans by flea bites and can cause bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic infections in humans. Left untreated it has a high fatality rate.
- There have been three major plague pandemics in human history dating back over 2000 years that killed tens to hundreds of millions. The causative bacterium was isolated in 1894.
- Currently most cases are reported in developing countries in Africa and Asia. Treatment involves antibiotics like streptomycin for 10 days or until fever subsides to prevent spread.
The document discusses several arthropod-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas including malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, encephalitis, epidemic typhus, and bubonic plague. It then focuses on arboviruses, which are viruses transmitted between animals and humans by arthropod vectors like mosquitoes and ticks. Major arboviruses include those in the Togavirus, Bunyavirus, and Flavivirus families that cause diseases such as dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and eastern and western equine encephalitis.
Human lice and fleas can transmit diseases like epidemic typhus, trench fever, and plague. Lice transmit diseases between humans, while fleas transmit plague between rodents and humans. Bedbugs feed on human blood and can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions. Kissing bugs transmit Chagas disease in Latin America. Mosquitoes transmit malaria and other parasites between humans and animals. Myiasis is a disease caused by fly larvae feeding on living or dead tissue. Forensic entomology uses insect evidence to estimate time of death in corpses.
Plague is a deadly infectious disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria, which is commonly transmitted to humans by fleas that feed on infected rodents. There are three main forms of plague - bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic - which vary in their symptoms and transmission methods. While plague has caused several pandemics throughout history, it is now treatable with antibiotics when diagnosed early. Public health efforts focus on surveillance of rodent populations and fleas to control outbreaks.
This document discusses infection and infectious diseases. It defines key terms like infection, disease, pathogens, and commensals. It describes how infections are classified, including primary vs secondary infections. It outlines various sources of infection like humans, animals, insects, soil/water, and food. It also explains different methods of transmitting infections, such as contact, inhalation, ingestion, and inoculation.
This document discusses agents of environmental disease, including vector-borne diseases and zoonoses. It provides details on four vector-borne diseases: malaria, which is transmitted through mosquito bites and causes fever and flu-like symptoms; leishmaniasis, spread by sand flies and caused by Leishmania parasites; plague, transmitted by fleas and caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, causing bubonic or pneumonic symptoms; and Lyme disease, transmitted by tick bites and caused by the Borrelia burgdorferi bacterium, causing joint pain, heart issues and neurological problems. It also discusses three zoonotic diseases: Ebola virus, spread between animals and humans and causing hemor
Lecture 3. epid. charact. of vector borne infectionsVasyl Sorokhan
This document summarizes several vector-borne and parenterally transmitted infectious diseases including plague, Lyme disease, malaria, and typhus. It describes the etiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation, and prevention of each disease. Key details provided include that plague is transmitted by rat fleas and causes a febrile illness, Lyme disease is transmitted by ticks and causes characteristic skin rash and flu-like symptoms, malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes and caused by Plasmodium parasites, and typhus is transmitted by lice or fleas and caused by Rickettsia bacteria.
MALARIA. definition epedimiology and laboratory and managmentABIE10
Artesunate, IV
Uncomplicated: P. falciparum:
First line
Artemether + Lumefantrine
Uncomplicated: P. vivax:
First line
Chloroquine + Primaquine
Mixed infection:
First line
Artemether + Lumefantrine
BY ABIE ASCHALE 47
Introduction to Parasitology & Lab Diagnosis of Parasitic oke.pptDhiniMeilani
The document provides an introduction to parasitology and the diagnosis of parasitic diseases. It notes that parasites infect over a billion people worldwide and cause significant suffering and death. It then summarizes key data on the global burden of major parasitic infections like malaria, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis, and Chagas disease. The document goes on to define important parasitology terms and provide taxonomical classifications and life cycle descriptions of important protozoan and helminth parasites, including Plasmodium, Giardia, hookworms, Taenia tapeworms, and Schistosoma. It also describes the epidemiology, symptoms, pathology, diagnosis and treatment of select parasitic diseases.
The document discusses different types of infections and their modes of transmission. It defines infection as the lodgment and multiplication of a parasite in a host's tissues. Infections are classified as viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic. Viral infections involve a virus infiltrating and replicating within a host's cells. Bacterial infections are caused by bacteria that can enter through wounds or openings. Fungal infections are often mild but some can be serious. Parasitic infections involve protozoa or other parasites that thrive in moist environments. Infections can be transmitted directly from person to person through droplets, skin contact, or body fluids, or indirectly through vectors, contaminated objects, food/water, animals, or the environment
This document discusses communicable diseases and their prevention and control. It defines communicable diseases as those spread from person to person by pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. The document explains the chain of infection, which involves a pathogen, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, susceptible host and portal of entry. It then provides examples of common communicable diseases like influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and what type of pathogen causes each. The rest of the document discusses different types of pathogens in more detail and how to prevent transmission of diseases through proper hygiene, sanitation and food preparation.
powerpoint for mapeh 8 (health 8) quarter 3.pptxELLAMAYDECENA2
- Pathogens are organisms that cause disease and include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and parasites.
- Bacteria and fungi are important in ecosystems but some species can cause illness in humans. Viruses and parasites rely on living hosts.
- Common diseases result from pathogens like influenza and SARS-CoV-2 viruses, malaria protozoa, and roundworm infections. Those with weak immune systems face higher risks. Prevention focuses on hygiene, sanitation, and treatment of infections.
Spirochetes are a phylum of distinctive, helically coiled bacteria that includes important human pathogens. They have long, thin cells enclosed by an outer membrane and inner periplasmic space containing endocellular flagella. Well-known pathogenic genera include Treponema, which causes syphilis, yaws, and bejel; Borrelia, which causes Lyme disease; and Leptospira, which causes leptospirosis. Spirochetes can infect humans through contact with contaminated body fluids or ticks/lice and cause symptoms ranging from skin sores and rashes to neurological, cardiac, and liver problems if untreated.
This document summarizes several arthropod vectors of human and animal pathogens. It discusses the pubic louse, bed bug, kissing bugs, fleas, mosquitoes, black flies, deer flies and horse flies. Key vectors mentioned include the oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) for plague, Culex mosquitoes for filariasis, Aedes aegypti for yellow fever and dengue, and Anopheles mosquitoes for malaria. Control of vectors focuses on sanitation, removal of breeding sites, and use of insecticides.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
2. LEISHMANIASIS (KALAAZAR)
This is an infection caused by a parasite of the
leishmanial group. The disease is also known as
Kala Azar.
There are three forms of leishmaniasis which
are caused by different parasites.
3. The vector of leishmaniasis is the female sandfly
(phlebotomus). The four types of sand flies are:
Phlebotomus martini
Phlebotomus orientalis
Phlebotomus longipes
Phlebotomus pedifer
4. In Kenya, the main vectors are phlebotomus
martini which transmit the parasite leishmania
donovani, responsible for visceral leishmaniasis.
The species P. orientalis is common in Sudan
while P. longipes and P. pedifer are commonly
found in Ethiopian and Kenyan highlands.
Together they transmit the parasite leishmania
aethiopica which is responsible for cutaneous
leishmaniasis.
6. MODE OF TRANSMISSION
The zoonotic hosts of leishmaniasis are mainly
dogs and rodents, although in some parts of
Kenya humans have become the reservoir as
well as host.
The parasites of leishmaniasis are transmitted
when the sandfly bites an infected person and
ingests amastigotes.
On reaching the sandfly’s stomach, the
amastigotes change into promastigotes.
7. After four to seven days, they migrate to the
foregut where they develop into infective
promastigotes.
The infective promastigotes are then conveyed
in the saliva of the sandfly during feeding.
During feeding, the sandfly tears the host’s
tissue to feed on blood and at the same time
deposits infective promastigotes at that site.
8. From here the promastigotes enter the
bloodstream and into the macrophages.
On entering the macrophages, the parasites
escape detection by the body’s defences and
are spread to various body tissues.
9. Visceral Leishmaniasis
Visceral leishmaniasis is found in many areas of
the North Eastern region of Kenya in Machakos,
Kitui, Masinga, Tseikuru (Mwingi), Makueni,
Kibwezi, and Wajir.
Clinical Features of Visceral Leishmaniasis
Visceral leishmaniasis is characterised by fever,
splenomegaliy, hepatomegally accompanied by
anaemia and weight loss.
10. Visceral leishmaniasis has a rather long
incubation period of four to ten months or
longer, before definitive signs and symptoms
manifest.
Most of the patients (96%) are killed by
secondary bacterial infections of the lesions.
11. CUTANEOUS LEISHMANIASIS
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is found in West Pokot,
Turkana, Baringo, Laikipia and Kerio valley.
It is characterised by single or several painful
chronic ulcers in those parts of the body
exposed to sandfly bites, such as arms, legs or
face.
12. In the lower hotter areas of Kenya such as
Baringo, the vector is the P. orientalis, while in
the highlands of Kenya, the high altitude
sandflies, P. longipes and P. pedifer are the
vectors.
Phlebotomus longipes bites human beings in
their houses at night transmitting the parasite
leishmania aethiopica, which is responsible for
cutaneous leishmaniasis.
13. Clinical Picture of Cutaneous
Leishmaniasis
In about two to eight weeks following a bite
from an infected sand fly, a small itchy papule
appears at the site of the bite. Over several
weeks, the papule grows in size expanding to
form a single indolent ulcer or multiple ulcers.
14. The disease may be mistaken for leprosy.
There may be enlargement of the local lymph
nodes.
The lesions begin to heal spontaneously two to
twelve months later. Cutaneous leishmaniasis
does not spread to other body organs.
15.
16. MUCOCUTANEOUS LEISHMANIASIS
This form of leishmaniasis occurs primarily in
the tropics of South America.
The disease begins with the same sores noted
in localised cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Sometimes these primary lesions heal, other
times they spread and become larger.
17. Some years after the first lesion is noted (and
sometimes several years after that lesion has
totally healed), new lesions appear in the
mouth and nose, and occasionally in the area
between the genitalia and the anus (the
perineum).
18. These new lesions are particularly destructive and
painful.
They erode underlying tissue and cartilage,
frequently eating through the septum (the
cartilage which separates the two nostrils).
If the lesions spread to the roof of the mouth and
the larynx (the part of the wind pipe which
contains the vocal cords), they may prevent
speech.
Other symptoms include fever, weight loss,
anaemia (low red blood cell count).
19. There is always a large danger of bacteria
infecting the already open sores. Treatment is
similar to that of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Prevention or early detection and appropriate
treatment are preferred. Corrective surgery can
be done where need arises.
20. Prevention and Control
Kala Azar can be prevented through:
Use of insecticide treated curtains in homes
(these have been used with success in Baringo
district)
Destruction of infected dogs and rodents
Early diagnosis and treatment of the infected
persons
Health education for communities on
preventive measures
21. PLAGUE
This is a highly infectious disease caused by
bacteria called yersinia pestis. Plague is a disease of
rodents, especially rats and is spread from rat to rat
by a rat flea called xenopsylla cheopis.
Plague is a very rare but serious disease because
it can spread very rapidly unless the first case is
recognised early and appropriate action taken.
It is also a serious disease with a high mortality
rate (case fatality rate in the absence of treatment
can be as high as 60%).
22. MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Plague occurs when infected wild rats, especially
the sewer rat (R. norvegicus) die from the
disease and their fleas look for substitute
domestic rat (rattus italia) hosts.
The domestic rat becomes infected and after it
dies the fleas start biting human beings.
23. When the first human is infected, the disease
causes bubonic plague. People working in the
fields may also be bitten by fleas from the
dead infected wild rats and develop bubonic
plague.
24.
25. Clinical Picture
Plague has three clinical presentations, bubonic,
septicaemic and pneumonic.
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis of plague can be confirmed by
doing a microscopy (staining) of sputum or
pus from the bubo to demonstrate the bacilli.
Remember: Early recognition of plague
followed by correct action is a matter of life or
death.
26. MANAGEMENT
You must start treatment as soon as you confirm
the diagnosis from clinical and laboratory
findings.
The plague bacillus (Yersinia pestis) is
sensitive to most common antibiotics except
penicillin. Drug treatment with any of the
following antibiotics is effective :
Remember: Plague is an internationally
notifiable disease.
27. PREVENTION AND CONTROL
The prevention and control of plague depends on
the following measures:
Early diagnosis and notification so that the
patients are not moved or referred to the
hospital
Chemoprophylaxis of all contacts of the
patients such as family, visitors and health care
workers using tetracycline or cotrimoxazole
28. Isolation of the infected and quarantine of the
contacts for ten days
Use of insecticides to kill fleas
Eradication of rats, for example using rat
poison
Vaccination during epidemics using an anti-
plague vaccine
Health education for communities on
preventive measures
29. Relapsing Fever
This is an acute infectious bacterial disease which is
characterised by alternating febrile periods.
It is also known as Recurrent fever, Spirillum,
Tick fever, or Tick Bite fever.
It is transmitted by ticks and lice.
There are two types of relapsing fever, namely:
I. Louse-borne relapsing fever
II. Tick-borne relapsing fever
30. The louse-borne relapsing fever is spread by the
human head louse, pediculus capitis, and the
body louse, pediculus corporis.
They transmit spirochaetes of the genus
borrelia reccurentis.
The tick-borne relapsing fever is transmitted
by soft ticks (ornithodoros moubata) which
live in cracks and crevices of walls and floors.
31. They transmit spirochaetes of the genus borrelia
duttoni, which cause tick-borne relapsing fever.
Children, visitors and pregnant women
travelling to endemic areas are more
susceptible to the disease.
Adults in endemic areas are semi immune to
relapsing fever.
32. Mode of Transmission
The disease is transmitted from person to person
by the bite of the head louse, body louse or soft
tick.
Louse-borne
The human louse transmits louse-borne
relapsing fever from person to person. When
the louse feeds on the blood of an infected
person, it takes up the bacteria.
33. The bacteria multiply within the body of the
louse (but these spirochaete are not found in
the saliva or the excreta of the louse).
The infection is transmitted to another person
only when the louse is crushed on the body
surface near a bite wound.
34. The offspring of an infected louse does not
carry the spirochaetes. Epidemics of louse-
borne relapsing fever are associated with times
of war
and famine when refugees are crowded
together in unsanitary conditions, which
promote infestation with human body lice.
35. TICK-BORNE
Tick-borne relapsing fever is transmitted when a
tick sucks blood from an infected person. The
spirochaetes are taken up and multiply in the
tick's body.
In seven days, the spirochaetes appear in the
tick's salivary glands and the coxal fluid ready
to be transmitted to a new host.
36. The organisms can either be injected directly when
the tick feeds on the host, or they can infect a new
host by penetrating intact mucous membranes (for
example in laboratory infections).
Unlike in louse-borne fever where the offspring
does not carry the organism, in tick-borne fever the
borrelia duttoni organisms pass into the ovary of the
tick, thus automatically infecting the offspring of
the ticks (vertical transmission).
37. In this way, a house once inhabited by infected
ticks will remain dangerous for up to ten years.
In an infected pregnant woman, the
spirochaete can cross the placenta to the foetus
resulting either in abortion, stillbirth,
premature delivery, or congenital infection in
the newborn.
38. A second relapse may occur in about 25% of the
patients. In untreated cases, there may be up to
ten relapses.
The fever and clinical symptoms become less
severe each time after the relapse. Relapsing fever
has a high mortality rate of 40%.
Common complications of relapsing fever include
meningitis, iritis, optic nerve atrophy (blindness),
myocarditis and liver failure bleeding.
39. Diagnosis
You can confirm relapsing fever by doing a
microscopic examination of a thick blood smear
for the spirochaetes.
Management
Treatment should eradicate the spirochaete from
the body without eliciting Jarisch-Herxheimer
reaction. Some deaths occur after starting
treatment as a result of a severe Jarisch-
Herxheimer reaction.
40. The antibiotics suddenly kill a large number of
spirochaetes which release toxins into the
circulation causing the patient to collapse.
This reaction is characterised by chills, rapid
breathing, elevated temperature (40 – 42°C),
confusion, delirium, and sometimes
convulsions and coma.
41. The patient then develops very severe
hypotension, and may go into heart failure.
This complication is however not seen in tick-
borne infections.
Patients must be nursed flat, given adequate
fluids and be confined to bed for at least 24
hours.
42. The treatment of relapsing fever is IM procaine
penicillin 400,000 units stat, followed the next
day by oral tetracycline 500mg six hourly for five
to seven days. An alternative to tetracycline is
oral doxycycline 200mg once (single dose).
Remember :
Tetracycline should not be given to children and
pregnant women because it discolours the teeth
permanently and also causes premature calcification
of bones.
43. Prevention and Control
Louse-borne
To eradicate lice you should advise the patient to
do the following:
Improve their personal hygiene
Use insecticides to kill lice, for example
malathion powder
Boil clothes to kill lice and eggs (delousing)
44. Onchocerciasis
Onchocerciasis is a chronic disease caused by a
filarial worm called onchocerca volvulus. It lives in
the subcutaneous and connective tissue of the
infected person.
It manifests mainly as skin nodules on bony
surfaces, and causes eye lesions which result in
blindness.
That is why it is also known as river blindness.
The vector for O. volvulus is the female black fly
of the genus simulium.
45. In western African countries where the disease
is more prevalent, the vector is simulium
damnosum, while in East Africa the vector is
simulium neavei.
The disease is found in western Uganda,
southern Sudan, and eastern Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC). Blackflies are
able to travel up to 80km in a day.
46. The simulium fly breeds in fast running well
aerated rivers or turbulent areas of a river such
as at the waterfalls and rapids.
The eggs of the simulium fly are able to
develop into larvae only in water that is rich in
oxygen, such as fast flowing rivers.
47. Larvae are attached to submerged plants, rocks
and living crabs. The female O. volvulus
worm is only about 0.3mm in diameter but can
be as long as half a meter (50cm) long.
The male is about 0.2mm in diameter and 4 -
13cm long.
48. Mode of Transmission
River blindness is spread from person to person
by the bite of an infected blackfly. Black flies
feed during the day both inside and outsideuses.
They usually bite early in the morning or late
in the evening.
The blackfly takes up microfilariae when it
sucks the blood of an infected person.
49. Once in the stomach, the microfilariae
penetrate the stomach wall and travel to the
thoracic muscles where they develop further
for about seven days.
They then move to the head of the fly ready to
be transmitted to the next susceptible person
when the fly feeds.
50. When the fly bites again, it injects the larvae of
O. volvulus into the skin of the healthy host.
The larvae mature in the human subcutaneous
tissue into adult worms in about one to three
years.
51.
52. Clinical Features
After the adult O. volvulus has lived in the body
of an infected person for about one year, it
begins to give birth to microfilariae.
One adult female worm can produce up to one
million microfilariae every year.
The microfilariae of O.volvulus have a strong
liking for the skin and eyes of the infected
host.
53. Adult worms live up to 17 years in nodules in the
subcutaneous and connective tissue.
Most nodules are found on the bony skin
surface such as the elbow, skull, ribs, iliac,
crests, and shoulder scapula.
The disease has four different clinical
presentations:
54. SEVERE ITCHING
This is one of the early symptoms and mainly
affects the buttocks. The severe itching is often
accompanied by skin depigmentation giving rise
to a ‘leopard skin’.
Skin Nodules
These are caused by the adult worms which you
saw earlier like to live in the skin. They contain
adult worms and are painless, rubbery, and firm;
ranging in diameter from 3mm - 3cm.
55. Dermatitis
This is caused by a reaction to the presence of
microfilariae in the epidermis and manifests as itchy
papules and macules. Later, the skin becomes loose,
scaly, atrophic and depigmented.
Blindness
This is caused by the presence of microfilariae in
the cornea and the anterior chamber of the eye. It
starts with oedema of conjunctiva; the corneal spots
and a pannus begin to develop.
56. Finally cataracts, iritis, sclerosing keratitis, and
glaucoma develop leading to blindness.
You can differentiate between trachoma and
river blindness because in river blindness the
pannus start at the lower limbus, while in
trachoma it affects the upper limbus.
57. Diagnosis
The diagnosis is made by examining skin snips
from the thighs, buttocks and iliac crests under a
microscope for microfilariae. microscope for
microfilariae.
Treatment
Onchocerciasis is not a fatal disease. If the patient
has no serious complaints and is likely to be re-
infected, there is no urgency for treatment, since
the traditional drugs used have been known to
cause severe reactions.
58. However, the following groups of patients do
need treatment:
Patient with eye lesions
Patients with severe skin lesions
Patients with heavy infections
59. Two types of treatment are used in the
management of this disease. The first one is to
kill the microfilariae.
Give the patient oral Ivermectine (mectizan)
150 microgram/kg single dose repeated once
every six to twelve months.
The second type of treatment is aimed at
killing or removing the adult worms by
surgical resection of the nodules.
60. Prevention and Control
The following measures have been found to be
useful in preventing onchocerciasis:
Addition of insecticide to the water of rivers
known to be breeding places of the simulium fly
Wearing of long clothing which covers most of
the body
Moving the whole community away from sites
near where black flies breed
Treating infected people with microfilaricides
Mass treatment of communities using ivermectine
61. DENGUE AND SEVERE DENGUE
Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease that
has rapidly spread to all regions in the world .
Dengue virus is transmitted by female
mosquitoes mainly of the species Aedes
aegypti and, to a lesser extent, Ae. albopictus.
62. These mosquitoes are also vectors of
chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika viruses.
Dengue is widespread throughout the tropics,
with local variations in risk influenced by
climate parameters as well as social and
environmental factors
63. TRANSMISSION
The virus is transmitted to humans through the
bites of infected female mosquitoes, primarily
the Aedes aegypti mosquito.
Other species within the Aedes genus can also
act as vectors, but their contribution is
secondary to Aedes aegypti
64. After feeding on an DENV-infected person, the
virus replicates in the mosquito midgut, before
it disseminates to secondary tissues, including
the salivary glands.
The time it takes from ingesting the virus to
actual transmission to a new host is termed the
extrinsic incubation period (EIP).
65. The EIP takes about 8-12 days when the ambient
temperature is between 25-28°C
Variations in the extrinsic incubation period are
not only influenced by ambient temperature; a
number of factors such as the magnitude of daily
temperature fluctuations virus genotype and
initial viral concentration can also alter the time
it takes for a mosquito to transmit virus.
Once infectious, the mosquito is capable of
transmitting virus for the rest of its life.
66. Human-to-mosquito transmission Mosquitoes
can become infected from people who are
viremic with DENV.
This can be someone who has a symptomatic
dengue infection, someone who is yet to have
a symptomatic infection (they are pre
symptomatic), but also people who show no
signs of illness as well (they are
asymptomatic)
67. Human-to-mosquito transmission can occur up to
2 days before someone shows symptoms of the
illness , up to 2 days after the fever has resolved.
Risk of mosquito infection is positively associated
with high viremia and high fever in the patient;
conversely, high levels of DENV-specific
antibodies are associated with a decreased risk of
mosquito infection (Nguyen et al. 2013 PNAS).
Most people are viremic for about 4-5 days, but
viremia can last as long as 12 days
68. Maternal transmission
The primary mode of transmission of DENV
between humans involves mosquito vectors.
There is evidence however, of the possibility of
maternal transmission (from a pregnant mother to
her baby).
While vertical transmission rates appear low, with
the risk of vertical transmission seemingly linked
to the timing of the dengue infection during the
pregnancy
69. Other transmission modes
Rare cases of transmission via blood products,
organ donation and transfusions have been
recorded. Similarly, transovarial transmission
of the virus within mosquitoes have also been
recorded
70. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Dengue should be suspected when a high fever
(40°C/104°F) is accompanied by 2 of the following
symptoms during the febrile phase (2-7 days):
Severe headache
Pain behind the eyes
Muscle and joint pains
Nausea
Vomiting
Swollen glands
Rash
71. Severe dengue
A patient enters what is called the critical
phase normally about 3-7 days after illness
onset.
During the 24-48 hours of critical phase, a
small portion of patients may manifest sudden
deterioration of symptoms.
72. It is at this time, when the fever is dropping
(below 38°C/100°F) in the patient, that
warning signs associated with severe dengue
can manifest.
Severe dengue is a potentially fatal
complication, due to plasma leaking, fluid
accumulation, respiratory distress, severe
bleeding, or organ impairment
73. Warning signs that nurses should look for include:
Severe abdominal pain
Persistent vomiting
Rapid breathing
Bleeding gums or nose
Fatigue
Restlessness
Liver enlargement
Blood in vomit or stool
74. Diagnostics
Several methods can be used for diagnosis of
DENV infection.
Depending on the time of patient presentation,
the application of different diagnostic methods
may be more or less appropriate.
Patient samples collected during the first week
of illness should be tested by both methods
mentioned below:
75. Virus isolation methods
The virus may be isolated from the blood
during the first few days of infection.
Various reverse transcriptase–polymerase
chain reaction (RT–PCR) methods are
available and are considered the gold standard.
However, they require specialised equipment
and training for staff to perform these tests
76. The virus may also be detected by testing for a
virus-produced protein, called NS1.
There are commercially-produced rapid
diagnostic tests available for this, and it takes
only ~20 mins to determine the result, and the
test does not require specialized laboratory
techniques or equipment
77. SEROLOGICAL METHODS
Serological methods, such as enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISA), may confirm the
presence of a recent or past infection, with the detection
of anti-dengue antibodies.
IgM antibodies are detectable ~1 week after infection
and remain detectable for about 3 months.
The presence of IgM is indicative of a recent DENV
infection. IgG antibody levels take longer to develop
and remains in the body for years.
The presence of IgG is indicative of a past infection.
78. Treatment
There is no specific treatment for dengue fever.
Patients should rest, stay hydrated and seek
medical advice.
Depending on the clinical manifestations and
other circumstances, patients may be sent
home, be referred for in-hospital management,
or require emergency treatment and urgent
referral
79. Supportive care such as fever reducers and pain
killers can be taken to control the symptoms of
muscle aches and pains, and fever.
The best options to treat these symptoms are
acetaminophen or paracetamol.
NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs),
such as ibuprofen and aspirin should be avoided.
These anti-inflammatory drugs act by thinning
the blood, and in a disease with risk of
hemorrhage, blood thinners may exacerbate the
prognosis.
80. For severe dengue, medical care by physicians
and nurses experienced with the effects and
progression of the disease can save lives –
decreasing mortality rates to less than 1% in
majority of the countries
81. Prevention and control
Prevention of mosquito breeding:
Preventing mosquitoes from accessing egg-laying
habitats by environmental management and
modification;
Disposing of solid waste properly and removing
artificial man-made habitats that can hold water;
Covering, emptying and cleaning of domestic
water storage containers on a weekly basis;
Applying appropriate insecticides to water storage
outdoor containers
82. Personal protection from mosquito bites:
Using of personal household protection measures,
such as window screens, repellents, coils and
vaporizers. These measures must be observed
during the day both inside and outside of the
home (e.g.: at work/school) because the primary
mosquito vectors bites throughout the day;
Wearing clothing that minimizes skin exposure to
mosquitoes is advised;
83. Community engagement:
Educating the community on the risks of
mosquito-borne diseases; Engaging with the
community to improve participation and
mobilization for sustained vector control
84. Active mosquito and virus surveillance:
Active monitoring and surveillance of vector
abundance and species composition should be
carried out to determine effectiveness of control
interventions;
Prospectively monitor prevalence of virus in the
mosquito population, with active screening of
sentinel mosquito collections;
Vector surveillance can be combined with clinical
and environment surveillance.