The document discusses stereochemistry and different types of isomers. It introduces structural isomers which have different bonding patterns and stereoisomers which have the same bonding but different spatial arrangements. Stereoisomers can be diastereomers or enantiomers. Diastereomers have different physical properties while enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images and have identical physical properties. The document uses examples like cyclic molecules and decalins to illustrate these concepts.
Structures of Solids
The components can be arranged in a regular repeating three-dimensional array (a crystal lattice), which results in a crystalline solid, or more or less randomly to produce an amorphous solid. Crystalline solids have well-defined edges and faces, diffract x-rays, and tend to have sharp melting points
What are the different types of solids?
There are four different types of crystalline solids: molecular solids, network solids, ionic solids, and metallic solids. A solid's atomic-level structure and composition determine many of its macroscopic properties, including, for example, electrical and heat conductivity, density, and solubility.
What makes a solid a solid?
Solids can hold their shape because their molecules are tightly packed together. ... Atoms and molecules in liquids and gases are bouncing and floating around, free to move where they want. The molecules in a solid are stuck in a specific structure or arrangement of atoms.
What are the 2 types of solids?
Solids can be classified into two types: crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids are the most common type of solid. They are characterized by a regular crystalline organization of atoms that confer a long-range order.
What are the examples of solids?
Examples of Solids
Gold.
Wood.
Sand.
Steel.
Brick.
Rock.
Copper.
Brass.
What are the 3 characteristics of solids?
A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape and gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
...
Solids
Definite shape (rigid)
Definite volume.
Particles vibrate around fixed axes.
How do you describe solids?
A solid is a sample of matter that retains its shape and density when not confined. The adjective solid describes the state, or condition, of matter having this property. The atom s or molecule s of matter in the solid-state are generally compressed as tightly as the repulsive forces among them will allow.
What is the structure of a solid?
In a solid, molecules are packed together, and it keeps its shape. The matter is the "stuff" of the universe, the atoms, molecules, and ions that make up all physical substances. In a solid, these particles are packed closely together and are not free to move about within the substance
What are some properties of solids?
Explanation:
A solid has a definite shape and volume.
Solids, in general, have a higher density.
In solids, intermolecular forces are strong.
The diffusion of a solid into another solid is extremely slow.
Solids have high melting points.
What are the 4 types of structures?
There are four types of structures;
Frame: made of separate members (usually thin pieces) put together.
Shell: encloses or contains its contents.
Solid (mass): made almost entirely of matter.
liquid (fluid): braking fluid making the brakes.
Unit II-Geometric isomerism and conformational isomer as PCI Syllabus of POC-IIIGanesh Mote
It Includes Cis-Trans Isomer, E& Z Nomenclature, Syn and Anti isomer, Determination of geometrical isomer, Conformations of ethane, Butane, Cyclohexane, Stereospecific and stereoselective addition reactions.
Structures of Solids
The components can be arranged in a regular repeating three-dimensional array (a crystal lattice), which results in a crystalline solid, or more or less randomly to produce an amorphous solid. Crystalline solids have well-defined edges and faces, diffract x-rays, and tend to have sharp melting points
What are the different types of solids?
There are four different types of crystalline solids: molecular solids, network solids, ionic solids, and metallic solids. A solid's atomic-level structure and composition determine many of its macroscopic properties, including, for example, electrical and heat conductivity, density, and solubility.
What makes a solid a solid?
Solids can hold their shape because their molecules are tightly packed together. ... Atoms and molecules in liquids and gases are bouncing and floating around, free to move where they want. The molecules in a solid are stuck in a specific structure or arrangement of atoms.
What are the 2 types of solids?
Solids can be classified into two types: crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids are the most common type of solid. They are characterized by a regular crystalline organization of atoms that confer a long-range order.
What are the examples of solids?
Examples of Solids
Gold.
Wood.
Sand.
Steel.
Brick.
Rock.
Copper.
Brass.
What are the 3 characteristics of solids?
A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape and gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
...
Solids
Definite shape (rigid)
Definite volume.
Particles vibrate around fixed axes.
How do you describe solids?
A solid is a sample of matter that retains its shape and density when not confined. The adjective solid describes the state, or condition, of matter having this property. The atom s or molecule s of matter in the solid-state are generally compressed as tightly as the repulsive forces among them will allow.
What is the structure of a solid?
In a solid, molecules are packed together, and it keeps its shape. The matter is the "stuff" of the universe, the atoms, molecules, and ions that make up all physical substances. In a solid, these particles are packed closely together and are not free to move about within the substance
What are some properties of solids?
Explanation:
A solid has a definite shape and volume.
Solids, in general, have a higher density.
In solids, intermolecular forces are strong.
The diffusion of a solid into another solid is extremely slow.
Solids have high melting points.
What are the 4 types of structures?
There are four types of structures;
Frame: made of separate members (usually thin pieces) put together.
Shell: encloses or contains its contents.
Solid (mass): made almost entirely of matter.
liquid (fluid): braking fluid making the brakes.
Unit II-Geometric isomerism and conformational isomer as PCI Syllabus of POC-IIIGanesh Mote
It Includes Cis-Trans Isomer, E& Z Nomenclature, Syn and Anti isomer, Determination of geometrical isomer, Conformations of ethane, Butane, Cyclohexane, Stereospecific and stereoselective addition reactions.
A look at epothilone A as it includes examples of many different forms of asymmetric synthesis. Also includes a little bit about ring-closing metathesis.
Gives an introduction to total synthesis and why we do it (which reminds me, I must add a picture of Everest, as I think the fact that 'it is there' is the main reason for most syntheses). Then to introduce the topic with a reasonably simple synthesis, we will look at an example of the synthesis of Tamiflu.
The big topic of the last few years, the use of small organic molecules to catalyse enantioselective transformations. This lecture will start with proline before moving on to some of MacMillan's contributions to this field and, finally, finish with hydrogen bond catalysts and Brønsted acids.
This is the biggy, the one everyone wants to achieve. Here we will be looking at metal-based chiral catalysis. We will concentrate on bisoxazoline-based Lewis acid catalysis and then look at reductions before finishing with the ubiquitous Sharpless epoxidation and dihydroxylation.
Use of stoichiometric amounts of a chiral source. The usual suspects will be discussed, including borane reagents (mostly pinene derivatives) and the Brown allylation.
Self explanatory really, this lecture looks at chiral auxiliaries. We will concentrate on oxazolidinones in alkylations, aldol reaction and the Diels-Alder reaction. There will be a couple examples of other auxiliaries.
General introduction to the course followed by a basic introduction to asymmetric or stereoselective Synthesis. Then starting the course proper by looking at substrate control.
More problems covering asymmetric synthesis. This time with examples of substrate control, chiral reagents, and chiral catalysis. Also another example of a synthesis.
An introduction to total synthesis and retrosynthesis. A quick overview of retrosynthesis followed by one of the many syntheses of (–)-stenine. This is just an overview of the fascinating world of organic synthesis, it is not intended to teach retrosynthesis or organic synthesis. For that see some of my other lecture notes.
Chiral catalysis. This is a relatively brief look at some classic examples of chiral catalysis in organic synthesis. It gives a quick overview but does not go into any detail.
These slides are part of a talk to school teachers. They were designed to showcase some of the applications of organic chemistry, the range of natural and synthetic products. I'm not sure how much use it is without my commentary but, as always, it seems a waste to leave it on my hard drive. The second half gave a overview of chirality and stereoisomers as this topic often causes problems with students. This second half owes a lot to an excellent paper by Robert Gawley (J. Chem. Ed. 2005, 82, 1009) and just has prettier papers. This version of the talk includes a section I removed when presenting (due to time) on artificial sweeteners.
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
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This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdf
Lecture8: 123.101
1. Unit One Part 8:
stereochemistry
the lecture everyone
(but me) hates...
2. ‘
...How would you like to live in
Looking-glass House, Kitty? I
wonder if they'd give you milk in
there? Perhaps Looking-glass
milk isn't good to drink?
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland - Lew" Carroll
3. ‘
...How would you like to live in
Looking-glass House, Kitty? I
there? Perhaps Looking-glass
glass
its a good
question...and it
wonder if they'd give you milk inturnsmilk’ ‘looking-
out
would not
be good for
Kitty...but why?
milk isn't good to drink?
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland - Lew" Carroll
5. isomers
happy with isomers
having the same
atoms...
structural
isomers
different
bond pattern
6. isomers
structural
isomers ...and structural
isomers have these
atoms arranged
differently (different
bonding)...
different
bond pattern
7. structural isomers
OH
all these have the
same formula but are
obviously (!) very
different
cyclopentanol
C5H10O
OH O
(E)-pent-3-en-1-ol 4-methoxybut-1-ene
C5H10O C5H10O
O
HO H
3-methylbutan-2-one (S)-pent-1-en-3-ol
C5H10O C5H10O
8. isomers
stereoisomers have
the same atoms and
structural
the same bonds...so
same number of C– stereoisomers
isomers
C, C–H etc bonds
diastereomers
same
bond pattern
9. isomers
...they only differ by how these
bonds are arranged in space
(how they are orientated
relative to each other)
structural stereoisomers
isomers
diastereomers
same
bond pattern
10. stereoisomerism
or configurational isomerism
A C A D
B D
≠ B C
alkenes are the easiest to
understand...these two have all the
same bonds but differ because D & C
are on different sides of the molecule
15. diastereoisomers
MeO2C H MeO2C CO2Me
H CO2Me H H
dimethyl fumarate dimethyl maleate
trans (E) cis (Z)
mp 103°C mp –19°C
bp 193°C bp 202°C
diastereoisomers are different
compounds with different chemical
and physical properties
16. cyclic molecules
& diastereoisomers
cyclic molecules can exist as
diastereoisomers depending
on the relative orientation of
substituents...
Cl
Cl
relative stereochemistry
19. Cl Cl
Cl Cl
cis-1,2- trans-1,2-
dichlorocylohexane dichlorocylohexane
(syn) (anti)
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
trans-1,2- TWO diastereoisomers... cis-1,2-
here we have
dichlorocylohexane
dichlorocylohexaneare on the same side
either both the chlorines
(anti) are on opposite sides
or they (syn)
20. Cl Cl
Cl Cl
cis-1,2- trans-1,2-
dichlorocylohexane dichlorocylohexane
(syn) (anti)
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
cis-1,2-
trans-1,2- two questions arise from this slide...which
conformation of each diastereoisomer is
dichlorocylohexane
dichlorocylohexane (easy)...and, why have I draw four
preferred
(anti) (syn)
molecules (hard)?
22. ax ax
Cl1 ax eq
eq eq
eq eq
Cl2 eq ax
ax ax
need to map skeletal representation
onto 3D representation
23. Cl1
Cl2
ax ax up up
eq up up
ax
eq eq down down
eq eq up up
eq ax down down
ax ax down down
bold is up
dashed is down
24. Cl1
Cl2
ax ax up up
eq up up
ax
eq eq down down
eq eq up up
eq ax down down
ax ax down down
Please remember that up and down
refers to which face of the molecule the
bold is up
substituent is whilst equatorial and axial
refer to their orientation
dashed is down
25. Cl1
Cl2
Cl 1 Cl1
H H
eq up
ax down
once the first substituent is in
place the other’s position is fixed
26. Cl1
randomly place a substituent in an
upwards position. In this case I’ve chosen
axial but I could have had an equatorial Cl2
upward substituent...
Cl 1 Cl1
H H
eq up
ax down
once the first substituent is in
place the other’s position is fixed
27. Cl1
Cl2
Cl 1
H
Cl 2
H
the second substituent
must be in an upwards
position
28. Cl1
Cl2
ax up
Cl 1 Cl 1
eq down
H H
the other conformation starts with
Cl1 equatorial
29. Cl1
Cl2
ax up
Cl 1 Cl 1
eq down
H H
if I had started with the first
the other conformation starts with
upward substituent equatorial we
would end up with the same
Cl1 equatorial
answer
31. cis
Cl1
Cl2
Cl1
Cl2
2
H Cl1
Cl
H
H
H
always
axial
one
substituent
32. cis
Cl1
Cl2
Cl1
Cl2
2
H Cl1
Cl
H
H
H
always
axial
in this example...both
one
conformations of the cis
diastereoisomer are identical...both
have one axial & one equatorial
substituent
substituent
33. cis
Cl1
Cl2
Cl1
Cl2
2
H Cl1
Cl
H
H
H
always
axial
one
BUT REMEMBER THIS IS ONLY
TRUE FOR 1,2-DISUBSTITUTED
SYSTEMS!!!!
substituent
34. ax ax
Cl1 ax eq
eq eq
eq eq
Cl2 eq ax
ax ax
need to map skeletal representation
onto 3D representation
35. Cl1
Cl2
Cl 1 Cl 1
H H
eq up
ax down
once the first substituent is in
place the other’s position is fixed
39. trans Cl
Cl
2Cl
H
2Cl H
H
1Cl
H 1Cl
for the trans diastereomer the two
conformations are very different...one
has two axial substituents and the other
has two equatorial substituents...which
is preferred?
40. trans Cl
Cl
2Cl
X
H
2Cl H
H
1Cl
H 1Cl
equatorialfavoured
41. H
H
tBu
H
H
HO t
Bu
OH
what happens if we have two
different substituents (two different
groups on the ring)?
42. this one favoured as big tert-butyl
group is equatorial...minimises 1,3-
diaxial interactions
H
H
tBu
H
H
HO t
Bu
OH
equatorial
largest group
favours
43. H
Me
tBu Me H
H tBu
H
true for all substitution patterns
(it doesn’t matter where you put
the big group it will be equatorial
equatorial
largest group
favours
44. Draw the two
conformations of:
Ph
following the guidelines above you
should be able to deduce the
orientation of any substituent and
hence draw the conformations
45. Ph can go in any Ph
down position:
ax ax up up
ax eq up up
eq eq down down
eq eq up up
eq ax down down
ax ax down down
46. Ph can go in any Ph
down position:
up H H
up up
down Ph Ph
up up up
down down
down down down
now methyl can only go in one place
47. Ph can go in any Ph
down position:
H
Ph
H
now methyl can only go in one place
48. second conformation Ph
has Ph in axial down
position:
ax ax up up
ax eq up up
eq eq down down
eq eq up up
eq ax down down
ax ax down down
49. second conformation Ph
has Ph in axial down
position:
up up up
up up
down down down
H up H
down down
Ph down Ph
now methyl can only go in one place
50. second conformation Ph
has Ph in axial down
position:
H
H
Ph
now methyl can only go in one place
51. H
Ph H
H
H Ph
favoured conformation has large
group equatorial
52. decalins fused ring system found in
many natural products (such
H as steroids) can exist as two
diastereoisomers...
2 H
stereoisomers
53. trans-decalins
H H
H H
trans-decalin equatorial, equatorial
ring fusion
they cannot undergo ring
flip so they are stuck in
these conformations
54. cis-decalins
H H
H
H
cis-decalin equatorial, axial
ring fusion
56. isomers
structural stereoisomers
isomers
diastereomers enantiomers
same
bond pattern
57. isomers
structural stereoisomers
isomers
a special kind of (pain)
stereosiomer...a pair of
enantiomers are identical in
always except...
diastereomers enantiomers
same
bond pattern
81. physical properties
NMR (see lecture 9) identical for
both enantiomers as is the melting
points and all standard chemical
E-300
180 160 reactions
140 120 100 80 60 40
H OH
Ph CO2H
(R)-(-)-mandelic acid
mp 131-133°C
HO H
Ph CO2H
(S)-(+)-mandelic acid
mp 130-132°C
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
82. but they do differ
under certain
circumstances
(otherwise why would
we care...)
except
two properties...
83. physical properties
α
light light (λ) polariser plane sample reading
source polarised light cell length l (dm)
H OH HO H
Ph CO2H Ph CO2H
(R)-(-)-mandelic acid (S)-(+)-mandelic acid
[α]23 –153
D [α]23 +153
D
84. physical properties
α
each enantiomer rotates plane
polarised light in a different
direction and more importantly...
light light (λ) polariser plane sample reading
source polarised light cell length l (dm)
H OH HO H
Ph CO2H Ph CO2H
(R)-(-)-mandelic acid (S)-(+)-mandelic acid
[α]23 –153
D [α]23 +153
D
86. other chiral objects
...how they interact with other chiral
objects is very different (imagine trying to
put your left foot in your right shoe...its a
tad more difficult than putting the right
foot in the right shoe)
92. chirality and drugs
Me Me
Me2N NMe2
Ph O O Ph
O O
Et Et
darvon novrad
painkiller cough-suppressant
93. chirality and drugs
Me Me
Me2N NMe2
Ph O O Ph
O O
Et Et
darvon novrad
painkiller cough-suppressant
both are commercially available and look
what those comical chemists have done
with the names!
94. drugs that target bacterial
alanine won’t hurt us (but
cause bacteria to burst!)
Me CO2H Me CO2H
NH2 NH2
L-alanine D-alanine
mammalian amino acid bacterial cell wall
95. chirality and drugs
O O
H H
N N
O O
O N O O N O
H H
(R)-thalidomide (S)-thalidomide
(morning sickness) (teratogenic)
but we have to be very careful otherwise
we can have horrific problems such as the
limbless children born because of the use
of thalidomide
97. why does nature only
produce one enantiomer?
not part of the
course but a
wonderful
philosophical
question...
98. Me CO2H
a molecule with one carbon
atom with four different
groups coming off it can exist
NH2 as 2 enantiomers
21=2
stereoisomers
99. O
H2N
N CO2CH3
H
a molecule with two carbon
HO2C atoms each with four different
aspartame
22=4
groups coming off them can
exist as 4 stereoisomers
stereoisomers
100. if it has three atoms
(stereocentres) with 4 different
OH groups then it can have 8
stereoisomers...
CHO
HO
OH OH
23=8
stereoisomers
101. insulin
(monomer)
has 51 stereocentres so it can exist
as a large number of stereoisomers
251 = 2.25 x 1015
stereoisomers
102. insulin
(monomer)
we have seen the problems
with just a 50:50 choice
(does it smell of lemons or
oranges?)
251 = 2.25 x 1015
stereoisomers
103. insulin
(monomer)
so we must have a single form of
insulin so it always does the same
thing...but insulin ain’t particularly
big...
251 = 2.25 x 1015
stereoisomers
104. DNA
polymerase
this number is
meaningless to me!
342
>2342 = >8.96 x 10102
stereoisomers
105. DNA
polymerase
342
but it gets
worse...consider
our genes...
>2342 = >8.96 x 10102
stereoisomers
107. and each base pair is
two molecules with three
stereocentres...so we
have a possibility of...
OH N
O
O N
NH
N
HO NH2
>3 billion
base pairs
108. Benny Herudek 3D Hifi - High Fidelity 3d Graphics Solutions
29,000,000,000 = ∞
stereoisomers
109. Benny Herudek 3D Hifi - High Fidelity 3d Graphics Solutions
if we produce just one
isomer then we don’t
have this problem...
29,000,000,000 = ∞
stereoisomers
110. ?
of course, why we have one enantiomer and
not its mirror image is another question
entirely...one which I will not comment on in
order to avoid offending the religious
amongst you...