Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior acquired through experience. There are three main theories of learning: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism posits that learning is based on conditioning responses to stimuli through reinforcement or punishment. Cognitivism views learning as knowledge construction and information processing. Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct new knowledge based on interactions and experiences.

1. Learning
SK

2. LearningLearning
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.

3. Roots in TraditionalRoots in Traditional
Learning ThemesLearning Themes
You are what you have experiencedYou are what you have experienced
Learning occurs via outcomesLearning occurs via outcomes
– (rewards and punishments)(rewards and punishments)
– Best to study animalsBest to study animals

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Representations of the Learning Process
 Behaviorism
– Stimulus-Response
– Reinforced Behavior
– Antecedent Behavior Consequence
– Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical
limited steps
 Cognitivism
– Cognitivist Learning Perspective
– Information Processing
– Schema
– Mental Models
 Constructivism
– Inquiry-based
– Discovery learning

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Key Principles: Behaviorism
 Learning happens when a correct
response is demonstrated following the
presentation of a specific environmental
stimulus Emphasis is on observable and
measurable behaviors

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Key Principles: Cognitivism
 Learning is a change of knowledge state
 Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and
structuring by the learner.
 Learner is viewed as an active participant in
the learning process
 Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisite
relationships of content)
 Emphasis on structuring, organizign and
sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing

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Cognitivism
 Information Processing looks at how information is retrieved and
stored.
 This theory focuses on how to store and retrieve information.
 Learning is attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the
information.
– Retention strategies such as breaking down information and
comparing the information to long term storage are great techniques.

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Key Principles: Constructivism
 Learners build personal interpretation of the
world based on experiences and interactions
 Knowledge is embedded in the context in which
it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful
realistic settings)
 Create novel and situation-specific
understandings by "assembling" knowledge
from diverse sources appropriate to the
problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)

9. Classical Conditioning and Ivan
Pavlov
Russian physiologist who studied
digestion
Used dogs to study salivation when
dogs were presented with meat powder
Also known as Pavlovian or
Respondent Conditioning
Reflex: Automatic, non-learned
response

10. Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that
activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of
food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in
his early experiments.

11. Fig. 8.3 The classical conditioning procedure.

12. Theories of LearningTheories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

14. Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened
by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d).
Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened
by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d).
An Example

15. Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

16. Operant Conditioning
Behavior is the function of its
consequences
• People learn to behave to get something they want
or to avoid something they don’t want.
------------------------------------
Behaviour Consequence
•Work is payed
•Talks to others meets more people
•Enters to restaurant Obtains food
•Enters Library Finds a book
•Increase productivity Received merit pay

17. The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant
conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant
conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.

18. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
An example

19. ig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child
said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a
polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re
welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al.,
1990
ig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child
said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a
polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re
welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al.,
1990

22. Dr
Shahram
Yazdani
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Key Principles: CognitivismKey Principles: Cognitivism
 Learning is a change of knowledge state
 Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and
structuring by the learner.
 Learner is viewed as an active participant in
the learning process
 Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisite
relationships of content)
 Emphasis on structuring, organizign and
sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing

23. 1. Learning is Constructive1. Learning is Constructive
 Constructivism: People combine existing knowledge
with new information to build new knowledge
 Learning = constructing meaning
 Students need to make their own discoveries and
thus construct their own knowledge
 Duckworth (2006) on Piaget: Create a classroom
where students can discover
*Piaget & others
3

24. What do you see?
4

25. Increasing Probability of BehaviourIncreasing Probability of Behaviour
 One of the most important consequences that
influences behaviour is reinforcement.
 Reinforcement is the process by which stimuli
strengthen behaviours.
 A reinforcer is a stimulus that follows some
behaviour and increases or maintains the
probability of that behaviour.
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26. Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement
 The application or addition of a stimulus that
increases or maintains the probability of some
behaviour.
 The reinforcer is dependent or contingent on the
occurrence of some desired behaviour.
 E.g., If you participate in class (increase or maintain behaviour), then
you will earn high participation marks (application of stimulus)
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27. Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement
 The removal of a stimulus from a situation that
increases or maintains the probability of some
behaviour.
 Negative reinforcement occurs when a response
prevents some event or stimulus from occurring.
 E.g., If you participate in class (increase or maintain
behaviour), then I will stop calling on you (removal
of stimulus)

28. Reducing Probability of BehaviourReducing Probability of Behaviour
 Sometimes learned behaviours are detrimental to
the operation of an organization and they need to be
reduced or eliminated.
 There are two strategies that can reduce the
probability of learned behaviour:
– Extinction
– Punishment
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29. ExtinctionExtinction
 The gradual dissipation of behaviour following the
termination of reinforcement.
 If the behaviour is not reinforced, it will gradually
dissipate or be extinguished.
 E.g., If you talk to your peers while others are
speaking (unwanted behaviour), then I will stop
smiling.
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30. PunishmentPunishment
 The application of an aversive stimulus following
unwanted behaviour to decrease the probability of
that behaviour.
 A nasty stimulus is applied after some undesirable
behaviour in order to decrease the probability of
that behaviour.
 E.g., If you talk to your peers while others are
speaking (unwanted behaviour), then I will ask you
if you would like to share your conversation with the
class (aversive stimulus).
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31. Reinforcement Punishment
Positive
Negative
Chocolate Bar Electric Shock
Excused from
Chores
No TV privileges

32. Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?

33. 33
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?
Study Question 4: What are reinforcement theories and how
are they linked to motivation?

34. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
•Response are elicited from a
person (reactive
•Response are emitted by a person
(Reactive)
•Response are fixed to a stimulus
( No choice)
•Reponses are variable in types and
degree (Choice)
•CS is stimulus such as sound, an
object or person
•CS is situation such as office, a
social setting, a specific set of
circumstances
•Reinforcement is not received by
choice
•Person is instrumental in securing
reinforcement by operating in the
environment
Difference B/W Classical and Operant conditioning

35. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.

36. Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.

37. Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
(circus)
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.

38. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.

39. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
Pay cheque
every month
Boss visit to
employee
Piece rating or
bonus for every
given amount of
sales
Jack pot

40. ConditioningConditioning

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OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications
 Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
 Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
 Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
 Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.