organisation development

1. CHAPTER:LEARNING

2. Contents
A. Definition of Learning
B. Nature of Learning
C. Principles of Learning
D. Theories of Learning
E. Learning through Reinforcement
F. Strategies of Reinforcement
G. Schedules of Reinforcement

3. A. Definition of Learning
Learning refers to the modification of behavior
through education, practice, training and
experience.
According to E.R.Hilgard
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of prior
experience”.

4. B.Nature of Learning
 Change in behavior
 Change in behavior must be relatively permanent
 Change must be based on some experience,
practice or training.
 Reinforcement.
 Learning is reflected in behavior.

5. C.Principles of Learning
 Feedback: Acc to this principle, the instructor
needs feedback to know how the trainee is
progressing and the trainee needs the feedback to
know his level of performance.
 Active learning: Acc to this principle, learning
can be more effective if the trainee is actively
involved in the learning process.
 Reinforcement :Acc to this principle, learning
which is rewarded is more likely to be retained.

6.  Meaningful material: Acc to this principle, if the
material supplied is related to the existing knowledge of
trainee ,than is proves to be more effective learning.
 Multiple sense learning: Acc to this principle, the
presentation method which makes use of two or more
senses are more effective than using on sense only.
 Over learning :Acc to this principle, if an individual
frequently makes attempts to recall the learned material,
forgetting is reduced and the material is memorized in his
brain.
 Primary & recency: Acc to this principle, the trainee can
recall those things they learn first and last in sequence.

7. D. Theories of Learning
LEARNING
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Social
Learning
Cognitive
Learning

8. 1.Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning is the association of one
event with another desired event resulting in a
behavior.
 The Russian psychologist , Ivan Pavlov was
conducted an experiment on classical
conditioning.
 Pavlov conducted an experiment on dogs and
tried to establish a Stimulus- Response (S-R)
connection.

9. Unconditioned
stimulus
(meat)
No response
Conditioned
stimulus
(bell)
Unconditioned
Response
(salivation)
Unconditioned
stimulus
(meat)
Unconditioned
Response
(salivation)
Conditioned
stimulus
(bell)
Conditioned
stimulus
(bell)
Conditioned
Response
(salivation)
1. Before conditioning
2. During conditioning
3. After conditioning

10. 2.Operant Conditioning
 Operant is defined as behavior that produces effect.
 This theory is based on the work of B.F.Skinner who
advocated that individual emit responses that are
rewarded and will not emit responses that are either not
rewarded or are punished.
 This theory argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
 Behavior is likely to be repeated if the consequences are
favorable and not to be repeated if the consequences are
unfavorable.

11. BEHAVIORS CONSEQUENCES
The Individual
Works Is paid
Increase
Productivity
Receives Merit Pay
Completes a
Difficult Tasks
Receives Praise and
Promotion.
OPERANT BEHAVIOR & THEIR CONSEQUENCES

12. 3.Cognitive Learning
 This theory is given by Edward Tolman.
 The essence of this theory is that one stimulus lead to
another.
 Cognitive theorists stress the importance of perception,
problem solving and insight.
 This view point states that much learning occurs not as a
result of practice but through discovering meaningful
patterns which enable us to solve problems.
 Cognitive learning involves learning ideas, concepts,
attitudes and facts that contribute to our ability to reason ,
solve problems and learn relationships without direct
experience or reinforcement.

13.  Tolman did an experiment in his laboratory by
using rats. He showed that they learnt to run
through a complicated maze towards their goal of
food.

14. 4.Social Learning
 Individuals can learn by observing what happens
to other people and by direct experiences.
 Much of what we have learnt comes from
observing and imitating models- parents, teachers,
peers, superiors. Film stars etc.
 Social leaning theory is an extension of operant
conditioning i.e it assumes that behavior is a
function of consequences it also acknowledges
the existence of observational learning and the
importance of perception in learning.

15. 1. Attention Process: People learn from a model only when
they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
We tend to be more influenced by models that are
attractive and important to us.
Social learning involves several
processes as shown below:
Attention
Process
Retention
Process
Motor
Reproduction
Process
Reinforcement
Process
Incentives &
Rewards

16. 2. Retention Process: A model’s influence will depend
upon how well the individual remembers the model’s
action after the model is not longer readily available.
3. Motor Reproduction Process: After a person has seen a
new behavior by observing the model, the watching
must be converted to doing.
4. Reinforcement Process: Individual will be motivated to
exhibit the modelled behavior if positive incentives or
rewards are provided

17. E.Learning Through Reinforcement
Reinforcement is anything that follows a response
and increase the tendency for the response to
reoccur in a similar situation.
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
Extinction Punishment
Types of Reinforcement

18. • Positive Reinforcement
 A Positive Reinforcement is a reward for a desired
behavior.
 The reward should be such which encourage desired
behavior and strengthens the probability of repeating such
behavior in future.
 The rewards should be matched with the needs of the
employees because all individuals have different
motivations for performance.
Example: Employee is hard working and successfully
completing his task. He is rewarded by a manager for an
excellent performance.

19. • Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement takes place when individual learn
to avoid or escape from unpleasant circumstance.
Example: Employees are not very active and good
performers when the supervisor is not present in the
factory.
If supervisor comes at a particular time, the employees
become active before his entry into the factory.
If employees do not bother about the supervisor and do
not exercise negative reinforcement, they will be punished
by the supervisor for not working.

20. • Extinction
 If rewards are withdrawn for behaviors that were
previously reinforced, the behavior will probably
become less frequent and eventually die out.
 In this process neither reward nor punishment
follows undesirable behavior.
 Ignoring undesirable behavior is extinction.
Example: If employee misbehaves with his
colleagues and the supervisor ignores his
behavior.

21. • Punishment
 The punishment process, involves delivering an
unpleasant consequence upon the occurrence of an
undesirable behavior.
 It is generally used to make the employees learn a
particular type of behavior but it is the least accepted
aspect of learning.
Example: An employee is warned by his manager for
taking unauthorized work breaks , the behavior may stop
but only when the manager is around , when the manager
is not visible the breaks occurs once again.

22. F.Strategies of Reinforcement
 Praise in public, punish in private.
 Punishment should quickly follow the undesirable
behavior.
 Punishment should focus on the behavior and not
on the person.
 Punishment is effective in modifying behavior.

23. G. Schedules of Reinforcement
1. Fixed interval schedule: In this , a fixed amount of time has to elapse
before reinforcement is administered.
Example: Salaried workers get their salaries on monthly basis.
2. Variable interval schedule: In this , the reinforcement is administered at
random times.
Example: Random visits to a company office by the corporate audit
staff.
3. Fixed ratio schedule: In this type, after a fixed or constant number of
responses are given, a reward or reinforcement is administered.
Example: Piece rate incentive plan ( Per dozen, Rs 2000)
4. Variable ratio schedule: In this, the reward varies relative to the
behavior of the individual .
Example: salesperson on commission ( on one occasion make 100
sales after 2 calls to potential customers and make a sale after more
than 20 callls to potential customers.)