Digital Image Processing denotes the process of digital images with the use of digital computer. Digital images are contains various types of noises which are reduces the quality of images. Noises can be removed by various enhancement techniques. Image smoothing is a key technology of image enhancement, which can remove noise in images.
Digital Image Processing denotes the process of digital images with the use of digital computer. Digital images are contains various types of noises which are reduces the quality of images. Noises can be removed by various enhancement techniques. Image smoothing is a key technology of image enhancement, which can remove noise in images.
Artificial Intelligence: Introduction, Typical Applications. State Space Search: Depth Bounded
DFS, Depth First Iterative Deepening. Heuristic Search: Heuristic Functions, Best First Search,
Hill Climbing, Variable Neighborhood Descent, Beam Search, Tabu Search. Optimal Search: A
*
algorithm, Iterative Deepening A*
, Recursive Best First Search, Pruning the CLOSED and OPEN
Lists
Introduction to Dynamic Programming, Principle of OptimalityBhavin Darji
Introduction
Dynamic Programming
How Dynamic Programming reduces computation
Steps in Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming Properties
Principle of Optimality
Problem solving using Dynamic Programming
Addressing mode is the way of addressing a memory location in instruction. Microcontroller needs data or operands on which the operation is to be performed. The method of specifying source of operand and output of result in an instruction is known as addressing mode.
There are various methods of giving source and destination address in instruction, thus there are various types of Addressing Modes. Here you will find the different types of Addressing Modes that are supported in Micro Controller 8051. Types of Addressing Modes are explained below:
1.Register Addressing Mode
2.Direct Addressing Mode
3.Register Indirect Addressing Mode
4.Immediate Addressing Mode
5.Index Addressing Mode
Explanation:
Register Addressing Mode: In this addressing mode, the source of data or destination of result is Register. In this type of addressing mode the name of the register is given in the instruction where the data to be read or result is to be stored.
Example: ADD A, R5 ( The instruction will do the addition of data in Accumulator with data in register R5)
Direct Addressing Mode: In this type of Addressing Mode, the address of data to be read is directly given in the instruction. In case, for storing result the address given in instruction is used to store the result.
Example: MOV A, 46H ( This instruction will move the contents of memory location 46H to Accumulator)
Register Indirect Addressing Mode: In Register Indirect Addressing Mode, as its name suggests the data is read or stored in register indirectly. That is, we provide the register in the instruction, in which the address of the other register is stored or which points to other register where data is stored or to be stored.
Example: MOV A, @R0 ( This instruction will move the data to accumulator from the register whose address is stored in register R0 ).
Also Read: Architecture Of 8051
Immediate Addressing Mode : In Immediate Addressing Mode , the data immediately follows the instruction. This means that data to be used is already given in the instruction itself.
Example: MOV A, #25H ( This instruction will move the data 25H to Accumulator. The # sign shows that preceding term is data, not the address.)
Index Addressing Mode: Offset is added to the base index register to form the effective address if the memory location.This Addressing Mode is used for reading lookup tables in Program Memory. The Address of the exact location of the table is formed by adding the Accumulator Data to the base pointer.
Example: MOVC, @A+DPTR ( This instruction will move the data from the memory to Accumulator; the address is made by adding the contents of Accumulator and Data Pointer.
Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence | Heuristic Function in AI | Admi...RahulSharma4566
Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence | Heuristic Function in AI | Admissible & Non-admissible
Hi Friends,
I am Rahul Sharma, Welcome to my Youtube channel Digital Wave, Segment- Artificial Intelligence
In this artificial Intelligence Tutorial video I have explained about Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence, After watching this video you will be able to provide possible solutions in Artificial Intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence - Heuristic Search
Heuristic Search
Artificial Intelligence
artificial intelligence and Expert Systems
artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence Tutorials in hindi
Artificial Intelligence Video Tutorials
Artificial Intelligence Course
Heuristic Search
state space representation
initial state
goal state
search techniques
formal description
ordered pairs
Benefits of artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence future
Who started AI?
Where is Artificial Intelligence used?
What is the disadvantage of Artificial Intelligence?
Types of artificial intelligence
gate exam Preparations
Machine Learning
Gate exam 2021 Question Bank
Gate exam 2022 Question Bank
PSU Exam 2021
PSU Exam2022
#HeuristicSearchinartificialintelligence
#HeuristicSearchinAI
#HeuristicFunctioninAI
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#MachineLearning
#Gateexam2021QuestionBank
#Gateexam2022QuestionBank
#PSUExam2021
#GTUEXAM
#RTUEXAM
#TechnicalPAPER
#WhoisFatherofAI
Artificial Intelligence: Introduction, Typical Applications. State Space Search: Depth Bounded
DFS, Depth First Iterative Deepening. Heuristic Search: Heuristic Functions, Best First Search,
Hill Climbing, Variable Neighborhood Descent, Beam Search, Tabu Search. Optimal Search: A
*
algorithm, Iterative Deepening A*
, Recursive Best First Search, Pruning the CLOSED and OPEN
Lists
Introduction to Dynamic Programming, Principle of OptimalityBhavin Darji
Introduction
Dynamic Programming
How Dynamic Programming reduces computation
Steps in Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming Properties
Principle of Optimality
Problem solving using Dynamic Programming
Addressing mode is the way of addressing a memory location in instruction. Microcontroller needs data or operands on which the operation is to be performed. The method of specifying source of operand and output of result in an instruction is known as addressing mode.
There are various methods of giving source and destination address in instruction, thus there are various types of Addressing Modes. Here you will find the different types of Addressing Modes that are supported in Micro Controller 8051. Types of Addressing Modes are explained below:
1.Register Addressing Mode
2.Direct Addressing Mode
3.Register Indirect Addressing Mode
4.Immediate Addressing Mode
5.Index Addressing Mode
Explanation:
Register Addressing Mode: In this addressing mode, the source of data or destination of result is Register. In this type of addressing mode the name of the register is given in the instruction where the data to be read or result is to be stored.
Example: ADD A, R5 ( The instruction will do the addition of data in Accumulator with data in register R5)
Direct Addressing Mode: In this type of Addressing Mode, the address of data to be read is directly given in the instruction. In case, for storing result the address given in instruction is used to store the result.
Example: MOV A, 46H ( This instruction will move the contents of memory location 46H to Accumulator)
Register Indirect Addressing Mode: In Register Indirect Addressing Mode, as its name suggests the data is read or stored in register indirectly. That is, we provide the register in the instruction, in which the address of the other register is stored or which points to other register where data is stored or to be stored.
Example: MOV A, @R0 ( This instruction will move the data to accumulator from the register whose address is stored in register R0 ).
Also Read: Architecture Of 8051
Immediate Addressing Mode : In Immediate Addressing Mode , the data immediately follows the instruction. This means that data to be used is already given in the instruction itself.
Example: MOV A, #25H ( This instruction will move the data 25H to Accumulator. The # sign shows that preceding term is data, not the address.)
Index Addressing Mode: Offset is added to the base index register to form the effective address if the memory location.This Addressing Mode is used for reading lookup tables in Program Memory. The Address of the exact location of the table is formed by adding the Accumulator Data to the base pointer.
Example: MOVC, @A+DPTR ( This instruction will move the data from the memory to Accumulator; the address is made by adding the contents of Accumulator and Data Pointer.
Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence | Heuristic Function in AI | Admi...RahulSharma4566
Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence | Heuristic Function in AI | Admissible & Non-admissible
Hi Friends,
I am Rahul Sharma, Welcome to my Youtube channel Digital Wave, Segment- Artificial Intelligence
In this artificial Intelligence Tutorial video I have explained about Heuristic Search in Artificial Intelligence, After watching this video you will be able to provide possible solutions in Artificial Intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence - Heuristic Search
Heuristic Search
Artificial Intelligence
artificial intelligence and Expert Systems
artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence Tutorials in hindi
Artificial Intelligence Video Tutorials
Artificial Intelligence Course
Heuristic Search
state space representation
initial state
goal state
search techniques
formal description
ordered pairs
Benefits of artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence future
Who started AI?
Where is Artificial Intelligence used?
What is the disadvantage of Artificial Intelligence?
Types of artificial intelligence
gate exam Preparations
Machine Learning
Gate exam 2021 Question Bank
Gate exam 2022 Question Bank
PSU Exam 2021
PSU Exam2022
#HeuristicSearchinartificialintelligence
#HeuristicSearchinAI
#HeuristicFunctioninAI
#Admissible
#HeuristicSearchinhindi
#HeuristicSearching
#nonadmissiblefunction
#digitalwave
#MachineLearning
#nonadmissibleHeuristicfunction
#admissibleHeuristicfunction
#GameplayingProblemsinAI
#gameplayingprobleminartificialintelligence
#ArtificialIntelligencekyahai
#ArtificialIntelligenceTutorial
#ArtificialIntelligenceCourse
#MachineLearning
#ExamPreparation
#GateExam2022
#PSUExam2022
#Rahulsharma
#gateexamPreparations
#MachineLearning
#Gateexam2021QuestionBank
#Gateexam2022QuestionBank
#PSUExam2021
#GTUEXAM
#RTUEXAM
#TechnicalPAPER
#WhoisFatherofAI
This slide includes :
Types of Machine Learning
Supervised Learning
Brain
Neuron
Design a Learning System
Perspectives
Issues in Machine Learning
Learning Task
Learning as Search
Hypothesis
Version Spaces
Candidate elimination algorithm
linear Discriminant
Perception
Linear Separability
Linear Regression
Unsupervised Learning
Reinforcement Learning
Evolutionary Learning
Comparative Analysis: Effective Information Retrieval Using Different Learnin...RSIS International
Information Retrieval is the activity of searching meaningful information from a collection of information resources such as Documents, relational databases and the World Wide Web. Information retrieval system mainly consists of two phases, storing indexed documents and retrieval of relevant result. Retrieving information effectively from huge data storage, it requires Machine Learning for computer systems. Machine learning has objective to instruct computers to use data or past experience to solve a given problem. Machine learning has number of applications, including classifier to be trained on email messages to learn in order to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages, systems that analyze past sales data to predict customer buying behavior, fraud detection etc. Machine learning can be applied as association analysis through supervised learning, unsupervised learning and Reinforcement Learning. The goal of these three learning is to provide an effective way of information retrieval from data warehouse to avoid problems such as ambiguity. This study will compare the effectiveness and impuissance of these learning approaches.
It gives an overview about the role of Hidden Markov Models and Bayesian Models in Inference. Discusses the limitations of the FOL and talks about the generative and temporal models
This presentation includes the discussion of Digital Signal Processing applications such as two band digital corssover system, woofers, sqawkers, tweeters, interference cancellation in ECG, speech noise reduction using FIR/ IIR filters, speech coding and compression, CD recording system
This includes discussion of DSP applications such as two band digital crossover system,woofers, sqawkers, tweeters, interference cancellation in ECG, speech noise reduction, speech coding and compression, CD recording system
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
TOP 10 B TECH COLLEGES IN JAIPUR 2024.pptxnikitacareer3
Looking for the best engineering colleges in Jaipur for 2024?
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2. AI : first 3 units
9/19/2017
2
Foundation
Searching
Knowledge Representation
3. Why is learning important?
So far we have assumed we know how the
world works
Rules of queens puzzle
Rules of chess
Knowledge base of logical facts
Actions’ preconditions and effects
Probabilities in Bayesian networks
4. 9/19/2017
4
At that point “just” need to solve/optimize
In the real world this information is often not
immediately available
AI needs to be able to learn from experience
5. What is learning
Machine Learning is the study of how to build
computer systems that adapt and improve with
experience
subfield of Artificial Intelligence
intersects with
cognitive science,
information theory,
and probability theory, among others
9/19/2017
5
6. Reasoning and Learning
9/19/2017
6
AI deals mainly with deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning arrives at answers to queries
relating to a particular situation starting from a set of
general axioms
Learning represents inductive reasoning
inductive reasoning arrives at general axioms from a
set of particular instances
7. Deductive Vs Inductive
9/19/2017
7
Deductive Reasoning (teacher explains, give
examples and then students practice)
Generalization(or Rule) Specific Examples or Activities
Inductive Reasoning (teacher presents students
with many examples showing how the concept is
used to make students “NOTICE”)
Specific Examples or ActivitiesGenralization(or Rule)
8. Classical AI
9/19/2017
8
suffers from the knowledge acquisition problem in
real life applications
obtaining and updating the knowledge base is costly
and prone to errors
So the need for Machine Learning
9. Machine learning serves to solve
the knowledge acquisition
bottleneck by obtaining the
result from data by induction
9/19/2017
9
10. Machine learning is particularly attractive
because
9/19/2017
10
Some tasks cannot be defined well except by
example
Working environment of machines may not
be known at design time
Explicit knowledge encoding may be difficult
and not available
Environments change over time
Biological systems learn
11. Wide applications where learning used
9/19/2017
11
Data mining and knowledge discovery
Speech/image/video (pattern) recognition
Adaptive control
Autonomous vehicles/robots
Decision support systems
Bioinformatics
WWW
( Data mining is the practice of examining the large pre-
existing databases in order to generate new information)
12. Defining Learning
9/19/2017
12
Formally, a computer program is said to learn from
experience E with respect to some class of
tasks T and performance measure P,
if its performance at tasks in T, as measured
by P, improves with experience E
13. Thus a learning system is characterized by:
9/19/2017
13
• task T
• experience E, and
• performance measure P
14. Example 1
9/19/2017
14
Learning to play chess
T: Play chess
P: Percentage of games won in world tournament
E: Opportunity to play against self or other players
15. Example 2
9/19/2017
15
Learning to drive a van
T: Drive on a public highway using vision sensors
P: Average distance traveled before an error
(according to human observer)
E: Sequence of images and steering actions recorded
during human driving.
17. So learning system consists of
9/19/2017
17
Goal: Defined with respect to the task to be
performed by the system
Model: A mathematical function which maps
perception to actions
Learning rules: Which update the model
parameters with new experience such that the
performance measures with respect to the goals is
optimized
Experience: A set of perception (and possibly the
corresponding actions)
18. Taxonomy of Learning Systems
9/19/2017
18
Or Classification based on above block diagram
19. 1. Goal/Task/Target Function:
9/19/2017
19
Prediction: To predict the desired output for a
given input based on previous input/output pairs.
E.g., to predict the value of a stock given other
inputs like market index, interest rates etc.
Categorization: To classify an object into one of
several categories based on features of the object.
E.g., a robotic vision system to categorize a machine
part into one of the categories, spanner, hammer etc
based on the parts’ dimension and shape.
20. 9/19/2017
20
Clustering: To organize a group of objects into
homogeneous segments. E.g., a satellite image
analysis system which groups land areas into
forest, urban and water body, for better utilization
of natural resources.
Planning: To generate an optimal sequence of
actions to solve a particular problem. E.g., an
Unmanned Air Vehicle which plans its path to
obtain a set of pictures and avoid enemy anti-
aircraft guns.
21. 2.Models
9/19/2017
21
• Propositional and FOL rules
• Decision trees
• Linear separators
• Neural networks
• Graphical models
• Temporal models like hidden Markov models
22. 3.Learning Rules
9/19/2017
22
often tied up with the model of learning used
Some common rules :
gradient descent,
least square error,
expectation maximization
and margin maximization
23. 4. Experiences
9/19/2017
23
Learning algorithms use experiences in the form of
perceptions or perception action pairs to
improve their performance
nature of experiences varies with applications
Supervised learning
UnSupervised learning
Active learning
Reinforcement learning
24. 4.1 Supervised learning:
9/19/2017
24
A teacher or oracle is available
It provides the desired action corresponding to a
perception
A set of perception action pair provides a training set
Examples :
an automated vehicle where a set of vision inputs and the
corresponding steering actions are available to the learner
25. 4.2 Unsupervised learning:
9/19/2017
25
no teacher is available
learner only discovers persistent patterns in the data
consisting of a collection of perceptions
also called exploratory learning
Examples:
Finding out malicious network attacks from a sequence of
anomalous data packets is an example of unsupervised
learning
26. 4.3 Active learning:
9/19/2017
26
not only a teacher is available,
the learner has the freedom to ask the teacher for
suitable perception-action example pairs which will
help the learner to improve its performance
Examples:
a news recommender system which tries to learn user’s
preferences and categorize news articles as interesting or
uninteresting to the user.
The system may present a particular article (of which it is not
sure) to the user and ask whether it is interesting or not.
27. 4.4 Reinforcement learning:
9/19/2017
27
a teacher is available,
but the teacher instead of directly providing the
desired action corresponding to a perception,
return reward and punishment to the learner
for its action corresponding to a perception
Examples:
a robot in a unknown terrain where its get a punishment when
its hits an obstacle and reward when it moves smoothly
28. Mathematical formulation of the inductive
learning problem
9/19/2017
28
Extrapolate from a given set of examples so that we
can make accurate predictions about future
examples.
Supervised versus Unsupervised learning
Want to learn an unknown function f(x) = y, where x
is an input example and y is the desired output.
Supervised learning implies we are given a set of (x,
y) pairs by a "teacher."
Unsupervised learning means we are only given the
x s. In either case, the goal is to estimate f.
29. Inductive Bias
9/19/2017
29
Inductive learning - inherently conjectural process
because any knowledge created by generalization
from specific facts cannot be proven true; it can only
be proven false.
Hence, inductive inference is falsity preserving,
not truth preserving
30. 9/19/2017
30
To generalize beyond the specific training examples,
we need constraints or biases on what f is best.
That is, learning can be viewed as searching
the Hypothesis Space H of possible f
functions
31. 9/19/2017
31
A bias allows us to choose one f over another one
A completely unbiased inductive algorithm could
only memorize the training examples and could not
say anything more about other unseen examples
32. Two types of biases commonly used ML
9/19/2017
32
Machine Learning : Types of Biases
Restricted Hypothesis Space Bias
Allow only certain types of f functions, not arbitrary ones
Preference Bias
Define a metric for comparing fs so as to determine
whether one is better than another
35. 9/19/2017
35
We lend money to people
We have to predict whether they will pay us back or not
People have various (say, binary) features:
do we know their Address?
do they have a Criminal record?
high Income?
Educated?
Old?
Unemployed?
36. 9/19/2017
36
We see examples: (Y = paid back, N = not)
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
Next person is +a, -c, +i, -e, +o, -u. Will we
get paid back?
37. 9/19/2017
37
We want some hypothesis h that predicts whether we will
be paid back
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
38. 9/19/2017
38
Lots of possible hypotheses: will be paid back if…
Income is high (wrong on 2 occasions in training data)
Income is high and no Criminal record (always right in
training data)
(Address is known AND ((NOT Old) OR Unemployed))
OR ((NOT Address is known) AND (NOT Criminal
Record)) (always right in training data)
Which one seems best? Anything better?
39. Occam’s Razor
9/19/2017
39
Occam’s razor: simpler hypotheses tend to
generalize to future data better
Intuition: given limited training data,
it is likely that there is some complicated hypothesis that is not
actually good but that happens to perform well on the training
data
it is less likely that there is a simple hypothesis that is not
actually good but that happens to perform well on the training
data
There are fewer simple hypotheses
Computational learning theory studies this in much
more depth
40. Occam’s Razor : a problem-solving principle
9/19/2017
40
Occam’s Razor/ Ockham’s razor is a principle from
philosophy
Suppose there exist two explanations for an
occurrence
In this case, the simpler one is usually better
Another way of saying it is that the more
assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely the
explanation is!
42. Constructing a
decision tree, one
step at a time
address?
yes no
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
criminal? criminal?
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
income?
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
yes no
yes no
yes no Address was
maybe not the
best attribute to
start with…
43. Starting with a
different attribute
yes no
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
criminal?
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N
Seems like a much better starting point than address
Each node almost completely uniform
Almost completely predicts whether we will be paid back
44. Hypothesis Spaces
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How many distinct decision trees are there with ‘n’
Boolean attributes?
=number of Boolean functions
Number of distinct truth tables with (2^n) rows
2^(2^n) distinct decision trees
E.g with 6 Boolean attributes, there are
18,446,744,073,709,551,616 trees
45. Different approach: nearest neighbor(s)
Next person is -a, +c, -i, +e, -o, +u. Will we get paid
back?
Nearest neighbor: simply look at most similar example
in the training data, see what happened there
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y (distance 4)
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N (distance 1)
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y (distance 5)
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y (distance 3)
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N (distance 3)
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y (distance 3)
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N (distance 5)
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N (distance 5)
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Nearest neighbor is second, so predict N
k nearest neighbors: look at k nearest neighbors,
take a vote
E.g., 5 nearest neighbors have 3 Ys, 2Ns, so predict Y
These nearest neighbours are
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y (distance 4)
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N (distance 1)
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y (distance 3)
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N (distance 3)
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y (distance 3)
47. Another approach: perceptrons
Place a weight on every attribute, indicating how
important that attribute is (and in which direction it
affects things)
E.g., wa = 1, wc = -5, wi = 4, we = 1, wo = 0, wu = -1
+a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y (score 1+4+1+0-1 = 5)
-a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N (score -5+1=-4)
+a, -c, +i, -e, -o, -u: Y (score 1+4=5)
-a, -c, +i, +e, -o, -u: Y (score 4+1=5)
-a, +c, +i, -e, -o, -u: N (score -5+4=-1)
-a, -c, +i, -e, -o, +u: Y (score 4-1=3)
+a, -c, -i, -e, +o, -u: N (score 1+0=1)
+a, +c, +i, -e, +o, -u: N (score 1-5+4+0=0)
48. How to calculate the score?
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wa = 1, wc = -5, wi = 4, we = 1, wo = 0, wu = -1
1) +a, -c, +i, +e, +o, +u: Y
Its (+a,+i+e+o+u)= (score 1+4+1+0-1 = 5)
2) -a, +c, -i, +e, -o, -u: N (score -5+1=-4)
Its (+c+e)=(-5+1= -4)
And so on
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Need to set some threshold above which we predict to be
paid back (say, 2)
May care about combinations of things (nonlinearity) –
generalization: neural networks
50. Reinforcement learning (RL)
Originates from Dynamic Programming (DP)
Less exact than DP since it uses experience to
change system’s parameters and/ or structure
There are three routes you can take to work: A, B, C
The times you took A, it took: 10, 60, 30 minutes
The times you took B, it took: 32, 31, 34 minutes
The time you took C, it took 50 minutes
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What should you do next?
Exploration vs. exploitation tradeoff
Exploration: try to explore under-explored options
Exploitation: stick with options that look best now
Reinforcement learning usually studied in MDPs**
Take action, observe, reward and new state
**MDPs: Markov Decision Processes are a
mathematical framework for modeling sequential
decision problems under uncertainty as well as
reinforcement learning problems.
52. Bayesian approach to learning
Assume we have a prior distribution over the long term
behavior of A
With probability .6, A is a “fast route” which:
With prob. .25, takes 20 minutes
With prob. .5, takes 30 minutes
With prob. .25, takes 40 minutes
With probability .4, A is a “slow route” which:
With prob. .25, takes 30 minutes
With prob. .5, takes 40 minutes
With prob. .25, takes 50 minutes
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We travel on A once and see it takes 30 minutes
P(A is fast | observation) = P(observation | A is fast)*P(A is
fast) / P(observation) = .5*.6/(.5*.6+.25*.4) = .3/(.3+.1) =
.75
Convenient approach for decision theory, game theory