Lactose operon/metabolism of lactose in E.Coli
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The document summarizes the lac operon in E. coli, which regulates the metabolism of lactose. The lac operon consists of structural genes (lacZYA) that encode enzymes for lactose catabolism, and control genes (promoter, operator, and repressor) that regulate expression. In the absence of lactose, the repressor binds the operator/promoter region, blocking transcription. In the presence of lactose or inducer molecules like IPTG, the repressor binds lactose instead, allowing transcription and expression of the structural genes. Glucose inhibits induction by lowering cellular cAMP levels needed for RNA polymerase binding to the promoter. The lac operon demonstrates negative and positive regulation of gene expression.
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Trp operon
The tryptophan operon encodes five genes required for tryptophan synthesis through two layers of regulation: transcriptional repression and attenuation. When tryptophan is present, it binds the Trp repressor protein, allowing it to bind the operator and prevent transcription initiation of the structural genes. When tryptophan levels are low, the repressor dissociates from the operator, allowing transcription. Additionally, the leader sequence can form alternative hairpin loops that control transcriptional termination or allow translation to proceed to the structural genes depending on tryptophan availability and the speed of ribosome translation through the leader's trp codons.
Gene expression in prokaryotes
The document summarizes gene expression in prokaryotes. It discusses how prokaryotic genes are organized into operons that are regulated coordinately. It provides examples of the lac and trp operons. The lac operon encodes enzymes for lactose metabolism and is induced by lactose. The trp operon encodes enzymes for tryptophan synthesis and is repressed by tryptophan through binding of the trp repressor to the operator. Both operons utilize repressors and operators to control transcription in response to substrates or end products.
operon concept
The document discusses operons, which are groups of prokaryotic genes that are transcribed together to serve a single purpose. Jacob and Monod discovered the operon concept in 1961 while studying E. coli metabolism. An operon contains an operator, promoter, and genes. Regulatory proteins can control operon transcription by repressing or inducing it. Examples discussed include the lac and trp operons, which use different mechanisms of negative and positive induction/repression to control gene expression based on environmental conditions.
Gene regulation in prokaryotes
Most bacteria are free-living organisms that grow by increasing
in mass and then divide by binary fission.
Growth and division are controlled by genes, the expression
of which must be regulated appropriately. Genes
whose activity is controlled in response to the needs of a
cell or organism are called regulated genes. All organisms
also have a large number of genes whose products
are essential to the normal functioning of a growing and
dividing cell, no matter what the conditions are. These
genes are always active in growing cells and are known as
constitutive genes or housekeeping genes; examples include
genes that code for the enzymes needed for protein
synthesis and glucose metabolism. Note that all genes are
regulated on some level. If normal cell function is impaired
for some reason, the expression of all genes, including
constitutive genes, is reduced by regulatory
mechanisms. Thus, the distinction between regulated
and constitutive genes is somewhat arbitrary.
Arabinose operon and their regulation and arac
arabinose operon and their detalied explanation about the operon conceptt and their regulation both positive and negative and the detailed explanation of the promoter ,operator,inducer,structural gene,arac protein
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description of protein degradation pathways in lysosomes and ubiquitin mediated pathway and n-end rule in different organisms
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Operon
The document discusses gene regulation in prokaryotes through the use of operons. It describes the lac and tryptophan operons. The lac operon controls genes involved in lactose metabolism and is regulated by the presence of lactose. The tryptophan operon controls genes for tryptophan synthesis and is regulated by the presence of tryptophan. Operons allow for the coordinated expression of genes through a single promoter region and regulatory protein that can turn transcription on or off in response to environmental conditions.
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Trp operon
The tryptophan operon encodes five genes required for tryptophan synthesis through two layers of regulation: transcriptional repression and attenuation. When tryptophan is present, it binds the Trp repressor protein, allowing it to bind the operator and prevent transcription initiation of the structural genes. When tryptophan levels are low, the repressor dissociates from the operator, allowing transcription. Additionally, the leader sequence can form alternative hairpin loops that control transcriptional termination or allow translation to proceed to the structural genes depending on tryptophan availability and the speed of ribosome translation through the leader's trp codons.
Gene expression in prokaryotes
The document summarizes gene expression in prokaryotes. It discusses how prokaryotic genes are organized into operons that are regulated coordinately. It provides examples of the lac and trp operons. The lac operon encodes enzymes for lactose metabolism and is induced by lactose. The trp operon encodes enzymes for tryptophan synthesis and is repressed by tryptophan through binding of the trp repressor to the operator. Both operons utilize repressors and operators to control transcription in response to substrates or end products.
operon concept
The document discusses operons, which are groups of prokaryotic genes that are transcribed together to serve a single purpose. Jacob and Monod discovered the operon concept in 1961 while studying E. coli metabolism. An operon contains an operator, promoter, and genes. Regulatory proteins can control operon transcription by repressing or inducing it. Examples discussed include the lac and trp operons, which use different mechanisms of negative and positive induction/repression to control gene expression based on environmental conditions.
Gene regulation in prokaryotes
Most bacteria are free-living organisms that grow by increasing
in mass and then divide by binary fission.
Growth and division are controlled by genes, the expression
of which must be regulated appropriately. Genes
whose activity is controlled in response to the needs of a
cell or organism are called regulated genes. All organisms
also have a large number of genes whose products
are essential to the normal functioning of a growing and
dividing cell, no matter what the conditions are. These
genes are always active in growing cells and are known as
constitutive genes or housekeeping genes; examples include
genes that code for the enzymes needed for protein
synthesis and glucose metabolism. Note that all genes are
regulated on some level. If normal cell function is impaired
for some reason, the expression of all genes, including
constitutive genes, is reduced by regulatory
mechanisms. Thus, the distinction between regulated
and constitutive genes is somewhat arbitrary.
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Protein degradation(molecular biology)
description of protein degradation pathways in lysosomes and ubiquitin mediated pathway and n-end rule in different organisms
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Operon
The document discusses gene regulation in prokaryotes through the use of operons. It describes the lac and tryptophan operons. The lac operon controls genes involved in lactose metabolism and is regulated by the presence of lactose. The tryptophan operon controls genes for tryptophan synthesis and is regulated by the presence of tryptophan. Operons allow for the coordinated expression of genes through a single promoter region and regulatory protein that can turn transcription on or off in response to environmental conditions.
Lac operon
lac operon is a negatively controlled inducible operon.E.coli can use lactose as a source of carbon.
The enzymes required for the use of lactose as a source of carbon are synthesised only when the lactose is available as carbon source.
The lac operon is an example of nagatively controlled inducible operon.
Structure
The lac operon consists of 5 structural units.
Promoter
Operator
Structural genes
CAP binding sites
Regulatory gene
Trp operon
The document discusses the trp operon in prokaryotes. The trp operon encodes for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan. It consists of 5 structural genes (trpE, trpD, trpC, trpB, trpA) that are regulated by a single promoter. The expression of the operon is controlled by the trp repressor and feedback inhibition via the mechanism of attenuation. When tryptophan levels are high, the trp repressor binds to the operator region and blocks transcription. When levels are low, transcription occurs and the enzymes are produced to synthesize tryptophan via a series of reactions.
Lactose Operon
The lactose operon controls the metabolism of lactose in E. coli. It consists of three structural genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that encode enzymes for breaking down lactose. These genes are regulated by one regulatory gene, lacI, which produces the lac repressor protein.
When lactose is absent or glucose is present, the lac repressor binds to the operator region and blocks transcription of the structural genes. But when lactose is available and glucose levels are low, lactose binds to the lac repressor and inactivates it, allowing RNA polymerase to bind the promoter and transcribe the structural genes to produce the enzymes for lactose breakdown. This allows the bacteria to metabolize
R rna processing
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed as precursor molecules that are processed into the mature rRNAs that make up parts of ribosomal subunits. In eukaryotes, two long precursor rRNA molecules are transcribed, one producing 5S rRNA and the other producing 28S, 5.8S and 18S rRNAs. rRNA processing involves cleavage of the precursor molecules by ribonucleases to remove spacer sequences and produce the functional rRNAs, which occurs through a series of cleavage steps in the nucleolus that generate intermediates before the final mature rRNAs are released.
GENE REGULATION IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
1. Gene regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes involves control at the levels of transcription and translation.
2. In prokaryotes, genes are often organized into operons and regulated through inducible and repressible operons controlled by regulatory proteins binding to operator and promoter sites. The lac and trp operons are examples of inducible and repressible operons, respectively.
3. In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled through chromatin structure, transcriptional initiation, transcript processing and modification, transport, stability, and small RNA-mediated pathways. This allows for complex tissue-specific and developmental control of gene expression.
Translation In Eukaryotes
Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) in eukaryotes, which are organisms with membrane-bound nuclei. Translation involves mRNA being decoded on ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. It occurs through three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves the small ribosomal subunit binding to the 5' end of mRNA and scanning for the start codon. Elongation is the sequential addition of amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors cause the ribosome to dissociate and release the completed protein.
Translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes in details , with newest informations available with proper diagram
Translation in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic translation is the process by which messenger RNA is translated into proteins. It involves three main phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation requires several eukaryotic initiation factors to form a pre-initiation complex and recruit the small ribosomal subunit to the 5' end of mRNA. Elongation then adds amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain via three elongation factors. Termination occurs when release factors recognize a stop codon and allow dissociation of the ribosome and release of the completed protein. The process is more complex in eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes due to the larger ribosome size and additional initiation factors required.
Genetic code
Genetic code, Deciphering of genetic code, properties of genetic code, Initiation & termination of codons, Gene Mutation, non sense codon, release factors, Transition , Trans versions
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
1) Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including transcription, chromatin structure, post-transcriptional processing, and translation.
2) Regulation allows for adaptation and tissue-specific gene expression during development. Key differences from prokaryotes include the lack of operons and more complex regulation in eukaryotes.
3) Gene expression can be regulated short-term through transcriptional control, as seen in yeast galactose-utilizing genes, or long-term for development through mechanisms like chromatin remodeling.
Operon
This document provides an overview of gene regulation in prokaryotes using the lac operon in E. coli as an example. It explains that genes are regulated to control which proteins are expressed at different times. The lac operon consists of structural genes that encode enzymes for lactose metabolism, as well as a regulatory gene that produces a repressor protein. In the absence of the lactose inducer, the repressor binds to the operator region and prevents transcription. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor and causes a conformational change that prevents it from binding to the operator, allowing transcription.
Post transcriptional modification ( splicing mechanisms)
Post-transcriptional modifications are important processes that convert primary transcript RNA into mature RNA. These modifications include 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing of introns in eukaryotes. The modifications help make RNA molecules recognizable for translation and increase protein synthesis efficiency by removing non-coding regions. Different types of RNA undergo specific processing pathways involving nucleases, snoRNAs and other protein complexes.
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
Gene expression in eukaryotes is regulated through multiple mechanisms at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. These mechanisms allow for adaptation, tissue specificity, and development. Regulation occurs through chromatin remodeling, enhancers/repressors, locus control regions, gene amplification, rearrangement, and alternative RNA processing. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression include larger eukaryotic genomes, different cell types, lack of operons, chromatin structure, and uncoupled transcription/translation.
Trp operon
The trp operon contains a cluster of genes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis that are under the control of a single promoter. It was the first repressible operon discovered in E. coli in 1953. The trp operon contains structural genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan synthesis, as well as a promoter, operator, and regulatory genes. Tryptophan acts as an effector molecule that binds to the repressor protein, increasing its affinity for the operator sequence and repressing transcription when tryptophan is present. The trp operon is also regulated by transcriptional attenuation, where tryptophan levels affect the formation of termination or anti-termination hairpin loops in the mRNA.
Genetic code and its properties
The genetic code is defined as the sequence of DNA nucleotides that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. It is universal across all lifeforms. The genetic code has the following key properties: it is triplet, meaning three nucleotides code for each amino acid; comma-less and non-overlapping, with no breaks or overlaps between codons; non-ambiguous, with each codon coding for only one amino acid; and redundant, with some amino acids coded for by multiple codons. The genetic code is read in the 5' to 3' direction and includes start codons that initiate protein synthesis and stop codons that terminate protein synthesis.
Trp operon
The document discusses the tryptophan (trp) operon in bacteria such as E. coli. The trp operon contains 5 structural genes that code for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan. It is regulated by a repressor protein called trpR that binds to the operator region and prevents transcription when tryptophan is present. When tryptophan levels are low, the repressor cannot bind and transcription of the structural genes occurs. The trp operon was an important early example of gene regulation and negative feedback that is commonly used to demonstrate these concepts.
Rna splicing
This document summarizes RNA splicing. It begins with a brief history of the discovery of RNA splicing and defines key terms like intron, exon, and spliceosome. The main part of the document describes the process of RNA splicing, where the spliceosome removes introns from pre-mRNA and joins the exons to produce mRNA. Finally, it discusses some applications of RNA splicing in gene expression, protein diversity, and cancer.
Dna replication in prokaroytes and in eukaryotes
1. DNA replication is the process where parental DNA is used as a template to produce identical copies of DNA or daughter DNA. It ensures faithful transmission of genetic material to offspring.
2. Replication starts at specific origins of replication and involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Enzymes involved include DNA polymerases, helicases, primases, ligases and more.
3. Eukaryotic replication is more complex, with multiple polymerases and regulated initiation. Telomerase is required for end-replication and chromosome integrity.
4. DNA repair mechanisms include base excision, nucleotide excision, mismatch and double-strand break repair to fix errors and damage via pathways like non-homologous
TRANSLATION
Messenger RNA carries genetic code from DNA and is translated by the ribosome into proteins. This involves transfer RNA molecules that associate amino acids with their codons. Translation begins with initiation factors recruiting the small ribosomal subunit to the start codon. Elongation then occurs through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome and translocation of transfer RNAs. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached. Translation is highly conserved and essential for protein synthesis in all organisms.
Polyadenylation
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
Lac operon overall
The document discusses the lac operon in bacteria. The lac operon is a cluster of genes involved in lactose metabolism. It includes three structural genes that encode enzymes for breaking down lactose. The operon is induced in the presence of lactose and repressed in its absence by a lac repressor protein. The lac operon demonstrates how bacteria efficiently regulate gene expression in response to environmental conditions through an inducible operon system.
Gene regulation
Imagine a situation when a cell starts producing enzymes required for metabolism and those required for cell death (apoptosis) at the same time. The cell will be in a confused state and will not know which function to perform first. The needs of the body keep changing with time and cell has to tune itself to perform the desired set of activities. Gene regulation helps a unicellular organism to adapt well to the environment.
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Lac operon
lac operon is a negatively controlled inducible operon.E.coli can use lactose as a source of carbon.
The enzymes required for the use of lactose as a source of carbon are synthesised only when the lactose is available as carbon source.
The lac operon is an example of nagatively controlled inducible operon.
Structure
The lac operon consists of 5 structural units.
Promoter
Operator
Structural genes
CAP binding sites
Regulatory gene
Trp operon
The document discusses the trp operon in prokaryotes. The trp operon encodes for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan. It consists of 5 structural genes (trpE, trpD, trpC, trpB, trpA) that are regulated by a single promoter. The expression of the operon is controlled by the trp repressor and feedback inhibition via the mechanism of attenuation. When tryptophan levels are high, the trp repressor binds to the operator region and blocks transcription. When levels are low, transcription occurs and the enzymes are produced to synthesize tryptophan via a series of reactions.
Lactose Operon
The lactose operon controls the metabolism of lactose in E. coli. It consists of three structural genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that encode enzymes for breaking down lactose. These genes are regulated by one regulatory gene, lacI, which produces the lac repressor protein.
When lactose is absent or glucose is present, the lac repressor binds to the operator region and blocks transcription of the structural genes. But when lactose is available and glucose levels are low, lactose binds to the lac repressor and inactivates it, allowing RNA polymerase to bind the promoter and transcribe the structural genes to produce the enzymes for lactose breakdown. This allows the bacteria to metabolize
R rna processing
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed as precursor molecules that are processed into the mature rRNAs that make up parts of ribosomal subunits. In eukaryotes, two long precursor rRNA molecules are transcribed, one producing 5S rRNA and the other producing 28S, 5.8S and 18S rRNAs. rRNA processing involves cleavage of the precursor molecules by ribonucleases to remove spacer sequences and produce the functional rRNAs, which occurs through a series of cleavage steps in the nucleolus that generate intermediates before the final mature rRNAs are released.
GENE REGULATION IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
1. Gene regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes involves control at the levels of transcription and translation.
2. In prokaryotes, genes are often organized into operons and regulated through inducible and repressible operons controlled by regulatory proteins binding to operator and promoter sites. The lac and trp operons are examples of inducible and repressible operons, respectively.
3. In eukaryotes, gene expression is controlled through chromatin structure, transcriptional initiation, transcript processing and modification, transport, stability, and small RNA-mediated pathways. This allows for complex tissue-specific and developmental control of gene expression.
Translation In Eukaryotes
Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from messenger RNA (mRNA) in eukaryotes, which are organisms with membrane-bound nuclei. Translation involves mRNA being decoded on ribosomes into a polypeptide chain. It occurs through three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation involves the small ribosomal subunit binding to the 5' end of mRNA and scanning for the start codon. Elongation is the sequential addition of amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached and release factors cause the ribosome to dissociate and release the completed protein.
Translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes in details , with newest informations available with proper diagram
Translation in eukaryotes
Eukaryotic translation is the process by which messenger RNA is translated into proteins. It involves three main phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation requires several eukaryotic initiation factors to form a pre-initiation complex and recruit the small ribosomal subunit to the 5' end of mRNA. Elongation then adds amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain via three elongation factors. Termination occurs when release factors recognize a stop codon and allow dissociation of the ribosome and release of the completed protein. The process is more complex in eukaryotes compared to prokaryotes due to the larger ribosome size and additional initiation factors required.
Genetic code
Genetic code, Deciphering of genetic code, properties of genetic code, Initiation & termination of codons, Gene Mutation, non sense codon, release factors, Transition , Trans versions
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
1) Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including transcription, chromatin structure, post-transcriptional processing, and translation.
2) Regulation allows for adaptation and tissue-specific gene expression during development. Key differences from prokaryotes include the lack of operons and more complex regulation in eukaryotes.
3) Gene expression can be regulated short-term through transcriptional control, as seen in yeast galactose-utilizing genes, or long-term for development through mechanisms like chromatin remodeling.
Operon
This document provides an overview of gene regulation in prokaryotes using the lac operon in E. coli as an example. It explains that genes are regulated to control which proteins are expressed at different times. The lac operon consists of structural genes that encode enzymes for lactose metabolism, as well as a regulatory gene that produces a repressor protein. In the absence of the lactose inducer, the repressor binds to the operator region and prevents transcription. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor and causes a conformational change that prevents it from binding to the operator, allowing transcription.
Post transcriptional modification ( splicing mechanisms)
Post-transcriptional modifications are important processes that convert primary transcript RNA into mature RNA. These modifications include 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing of introns in eukaryotes. The modifications help make RNA molecules recognizable for translation and increase protein synthesis efficiency by removing non-coding regions. Different types of RNA undergo specific processing pathways involving nucleases, snoRNAs and other protein complexes.
Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
Gene expression in eukaryotes is regulated through multiple mechanisms at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. These mechanisms allow for adaptation, tissue specificity, and development. Regulation occurs through chromatin remodeling, enhancers/repressors, locus control regions, gene amplification, rearrangement, and alternative RNA processing. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression include larger eukaryotic genomes, different cell types, lack of operons, chromatin structure, and uncoupled transcription/translation.
Trp operon
The trp operon contains a cluster of genes involved in tryptophan biosynthesis that are under the control of a single promoter. It was the first repressible operon discovered in E. coli in 1953. The trp operon contains structural genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan synthesis, as well as a promoter, operator, and regulatory genes. Tryptophan acts as an effector molecule that binds to the repressor protein, increasing its affinity for the operator sequence and repressing transcription when tryptophan is present. The trp operon is also regulated by transcriptional attenuation, where tryptophan levels affect the formation of termination or anti-termination hairpin loops in the mRNA.
Genetic code and its properties
The genetic code is defined as the sequence of DNA nucleotides that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. It is universal across all lifeforms. The genetic code has the following key properties: it is triplet, meaning three nucleotides code for each amino acid; comma-less and non-overlapping, with no breaks or overlaps between codons; non-ambiguous, with each codon coding for only one amino acid; and redundant, with some amino acids coded for by multiple codons. The genetic code is read in the 5' to 3' direction and includes start codons that initiate protein synthesis and stop codons that terminate protein synthesis.
Trp operon
The document discusses the tryptophan (trp) operon in bacteria such as E. coli. The trp operon contains 5 structural genes that code for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan. It is regulated by a repressor protein called trpR that binds to the operator region and prevents transcription when tryptophan is present. When tryptophan levels are low, the repressor cannot bind and transcription of the structural genes occurs. The trp operon was an important early example of gene regulation and negative feedback that is commonly used to demonstrate these concepts.
Rna splicing
This document summarizes RNA splicing. It begins with a brief history of the discovery of RNA splicing and defines key terms like intron, exon, and spliceosome. The main part of the document describes the process of RNA splicing, where the spliceosome removes introns from pre-mRNA and joins the exons to produce mRNA. Finally, it discusses some applications of RNA splicing in gene expression, protein diversity, and cancer.
Dna replication in prokaroytes and in eukaryotes
1. DNA replication is the process where parental DNA is used as a template to produce identical copies of DNA or daughter DNA. It ensures faithful transmission of genetic material to offspring.
2. Replication starts at specific origins of replication and involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Enzymes involved include DNA polymerases, helicases, primases, ligases and more.
3. Eukaryotic replication is more complex, with multiple polymerases and regulated initiation. Telomerase is required for end-replication and chromosome integrity.
4. DNA repair mechanisms include base excision, nucleotide excision, mismatch and double-strand break repair to fix errors and damage via pathways like non-homologous
TRANSLATION
Messenger RNA carries genetic code from DNA and is translated by the ribosome into proteins. This involves transfer RNA molecules that associate amino acids with their codons. Translation begins with initiation factors recruiting the small ribosomal subunit to the start codon. Elongation then occurs through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome and translocation of transfer RNAs. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached. Translation is highly conserved and essential for protein synthesis in all organisms.
Polyadenylation
Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to messenger RNA. The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates and plays an important role in mRNA stability, nucleocytoplasmic export, and translation. Cleavage and polyadenylation is controlled by cis elements located upstream and downstream of the polyadenylation site and involves endonuclease cleavage of the pre-mRNA followed by poly(A) polymerase addition of adenines in a template-independent manner. Alternative polyadenylation and cytoplasmic polyadenylation allow for regulation of mRNA expression through differing poly(A) tail lengths.
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Post transcriptional modification ( splicing mechanisms)
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Similar to Lactose operon/metabolism of lactose in E.Coli
Lac operon overall
The document discusses the lac operon in bacteria. The lac operon is a cluster of genes involved in lactose metabolism. It includes three structural genes that encode enzymes for breaking down lactose. The operon is induced in the presence of lactose and repressed in its absence by a lac repressor protein. The lac operon demonstrates how bacteria efficiently regulate gene expression in response to environmental conditions through an inducible operon system.
Gene regulation
Imagine a situation when a cell starts producing enzymes required for metabolism and those required for cell death (apoptosis) at the same time. The cell will be in a confused state and will not know which function to perform first. The needs of the body keep changing with time and cell has to tune itself to perform the desired set of activities. Gene regulation helps a unicellular organism to adapt well to the environment.
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes final
The power point presentation explains about regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes by means of Inducible and repressible operons with the help of Lactose(lac) operon and Tryptophan (trp)
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Lac operon slide
Gene regulation can be defined as any kind of alteration in the gene to give rise to a different expression which might result in a change in the synthesized amino acid sequence.”
Gene expression is basically the synthesis of the polypeptide chain encoded by a particular gene.
Therefore the expression of the gene can be quantified in terms of the amount of protein synthesised by the genes.
Lac operon
This document summarizes the lac operon in E. coli, which regulates genes involved in lactose metabolism. The lac operon contains structural genes that encode beta-galactosidase, galactoside permease, and thiogalactoside transacetylase. These genes are regulated by a repressor protein that binds to the operator region and prevents transcription under non-inducing conditions when lactose is absent. However, in the presence of lactose, allolactose is produced and binds to the repressor, causing a conformational change that prevents it from binding to the operator. This allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter and initiate transcription of the structural genes, allowing lactose to be metabol
LAC OPERON.pptx
The document discusses gene regulation in prokaryotes using the lac operon in E. coli as an example. The lac operon consists of structural genes that encode proteins for lactose metabolism and regulatory genes that control their expression. In the absence of lactose, a repressor protein binds to the operator region and prevents transcription. When lactose is present, it is converted to allolactose which binds the repressor and prevents it from binding the operator, allowing transcription. The presence of glucose inhibits transcription through a mechanism involving cAMP and the catabolite activator protein.
Prokaryotic gene regulation
There are two main mechanisms of transcriptional control of gene expression in prokaryotes: 1) Operons, where genes involved in a metabolic pathway are clustered under common regulatory sequences and proteins, allowing synchronized expression. 2) Cascades of gene expression, where expression of one gene set can activate expression of another gene set. The lactose and tryptophan operons are examples that demonstrate negative and positive regulation of gene expression through repressors, inducers, and feedback loops in response to environmental conditions.
Lac operon
This is my first presentation share in this platform. Hope this is helpful for you! Here, I have tried to explain MECHANISM OF LAC OPERON in E.Coli in informative and crisp manner with simple language and few images.
Lac operon
The lac operon controls genes involved in lactose metabolism in E. coli. It consists of three structural genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that are regulated by a single promoter. Expression of the lac genes is controlled by the lac repressor protein, which binds to the operator region and blocks transcription unless lactose is present. When lactose is detected, it causes an allosteric change in the repressor, releasing it from the operator and allowing transcription. Glucose also prevents expression through catabolite repression by inhibiting the activator protein required for stable transcription initiation.
Lac operon
The lac operon controls the breakdown of lactose in E. coli bacteria. It consists of three structural genes (lacZ, lacY, lacA) that are regulated by a single promoter and operator region. In the absence of lactose, a lac repressor binds to the operator, preventing transcription of the structural genes. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor and causes a conformational change, releasing it from the operator and allowing transcription. Mutations in the operator, structural genes, or promoter region provided insights into the operon's control mechanism.
The Lac operon
The lac operon controls the breakdown of lactose in E. coli bacteria. It consists of three structural genes (lacZ, lacY, lacA) that are regulated by a single promoter and operator region. In the absence of lactose, a lac repressor binds to the operator, preventing transcription of the structural genes. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor and causes a conformational change, releasing it from the operator and allowing transcription. Mutations in the operator, structural genes, or promoter region provided insights into the operon's control mechanism.
Lac operon
The operon theory proposes that genes are organized into operons - clusters of genes under the control of a single promoter. An operon contains a promoter, operator, and multiple structural genes. The lac operon in E. coli regulates genes involved in lactose metabolism. It is negatively regulated - in the absence of lactose, a repressor binds the operator to prevent transcription, but lactose or allolactose induce transcription by binding to the repressor. The operon theory explains how bacteria regulate gene expression in response to environmental conditions.
Operon concept.pdf
The document discusses the operon concept in prokaryotes. It defines an operon as a cluster of genes located together on the chromosome that are transcribed together. Operons contain structural genes whose products work together in a metabolic pathway, as well as a regulatory gene that controls expression of the structural genes. The basic operon structure includes structural genes, an operator site that binds a repressor, and a promoter where RNA polymerase binds. The lac operon codes for enzymes that break down lactose and is induced by the presence of lactose. It contains genes, an operator, and a promoter, as well as the lac repressor gene that produces a repressor protein to block transcription unless lactose is present.
Gene regulation
The document summarizes regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, genes are organized into operons containing a promoter, operator, and multiple coding sequences. The lac operon in E.coli contains genes regulated by the repressor protein LacI and induced by lactose. In eukaryotes, gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and degradation. Mechanisms include histone modification, DNA methylation, hormone signaling, polyadenylation, splicing, transport and protein degradation.
Gene regulation
The document summarizes regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, genes are organized into operons containing a promoter, operator, and multiple coding sequences. The lac operon in E.coli contains genes regulated by the repressor protein LacI and induced by lactose. In eukaryotes, gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including transcription, RNA processing, transport, translation and degradation. Mechanisms include histone modification, DNA methylation, hormone signaling, polyadenylation, splicing, transport and protein degradation.
Transcription II_Adv Mol Biol_MSc_2023-24.pdf
The document summarizes gene regulation in bacteria, focusing on the lac operon. It describes how the lac operon is regulated by the lac repressor binding to the operator region, preventing transcription. In the presence of lactose, the inducer allolactose binds to the lac repressor, causing a conformational change that reduces its DNA binding. This allows RNA polymerase to initiate transcription. Positive regulation involves the catabolic activator protein CAP recruiting RNA polymerase when cAMP levels are high. The lac operon demonstrates how bacteria rapidly regulate gene expression in response to environmental conditions through negative and positive transcriptional control.
gene expression in prokaryotes.pptx
Gene expression in prokaryotes is often controlled through operons, which group functionally related genes together so they can be coregulated. A classic example is the lac operon in E. coli, which contains genes needed for lactose utilization. The lac operon is regulated by a repressor protein that binds to the operator region and blocks transcription when lactose is absent. In the presence of lactose, it binds the inducer and falls off the operator, allowing transcription. Similarly, the trp operon contains genes for tryptophan synthesis and is negatively regulated by a repressor.
Negative gene regulation
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used to produce a functional product like a protein. The document discusses gene regulation in E. coli using the lac operon as an example. The lac operon controls lactose metabolism and consists of 3 genes regulated by the lac repressor and catabolite activator protein (CAP). When glucose is present, the lac operon is off, but when glucose is low and lactose available, the operon is strongly expressed to use lactose.
Similar to Lactose operon/metabolism of lactose in E.Coli (20)
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes final
Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes final
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Lactose operon/metabolism of lactose in E.Coli
- 1. LAC OPERON BY A.MANOJ KUMAR M.Sc (BIO-TECH)
- 2. INTRODUCTION OPERON:- An Operon is a group of closely related gene (structural and control gene) Which regulate the metabolic pathway in prokaryotes The Operon hypothesis was first put forward by francois Jacob and Jacques Monod,while studying the catabolism of lactose in E.Coli They were awarded noble prize for this in the year 1965.
- 3. LAC OPERON Lactose operon is a set of gene responsible for the metabolism of lactose in E.Coli. STRUCTURE OF LAC OPERON The lac operon consist of 1)Structural Gene(Lac Z,Y,A) 2)Control or Regulatory Gene(Promoter/Operator/Repressor)
- 4. GENETIC MAP OF LAC OPERON
- 5. STRUCTURAL GENES:- Structural genes are the segment of DNA responsible for synthesis of enzyme need for the catabolism of lactose. Lac-Z codes for the Enzyme β-galactosidase Lac-Y codes for the Enzyme Galactose Permease Lac-A codes for the Enzyme Thiogalactoside Transacetylase The structural gene produce a single polycistronic mRNA,from which 3 enzyme are produced.
- 6. CONTROL OR REGULATORY GENE:- The structural genes are controlled by operator,promoter and Repressor. It is present in upstream to the structural gene. The control or regulatory gene are control the activity of structural gene by either induction or suppression OPERATOR GENE:- The operator gene is the segment of DNA overlap with the promoter region It controles the transcription of structural mRNA
- 7. PROMOTER:- A segment of DNA presence adjacent to the operator gene RNA Polymerase bind specifically to the promoter region and initiates the transcription of structural genes of lac operon. REPRESSOR GENE:- Repressor is a tetrameric regulatory protein produces repressor molecule. Repressor molecule binds to the P/O region and blocks the transcription of structural gene
- 8. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN LAC OPERON-NEGATIVE REGULATION When lactose is absent Repressor is active Repressor binds the Operator/Promoter region Operon is repressed Transcription is blocked No m-RNA synthesized This repressor molecule act as a negative of gene expression
- 10. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN LAC OPERON-POSITIVE REGULATION When lactose is present Repressor binds to the inducer molecule Repressor will not be able to binds to the Promoter/Operator segment Operon became active Transcription begins mRNA synthesized occur Lactose β-galactosidase= Glucose+Galactose
- 12. INDUCER MOLECULES OF LAC OPERON Lactose isomer (1,6-allow lactose) IPTG (Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside) TMG(Thiomethyl Galactoside) EFFECT OF GLUCOSE ON THE ACTIVITY OF LAC OPERON:- In the presence of glucose,the induction of lac operon is inhibited When the cell contain No Lac mRNA glucose+galactose No Transcription No β-galactosidase
- 13. The attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter site requires the presence of Catabolite Activator Protein(CAP) bound to the cyclic Adenine Monophosphate (cAMP) . CAP-cAMP Complex function has positive regulator of lac operon NO GLUCOSE High cAMP MORE GLUCOSE Low cAMP
- 15. THANK YOU...