An experiment was conducted to determine the knee-point voltage of 4 current transformers (CTs) intended for use in a substation power transformer protection system. Open-circuit tests were performed on the CTs to collect voltage and current readings, from which magnetization curves were generated using MATLAB. The magnetization curves revealed that all 4 CTs had a knee-point voltage of 1000V, indicating they were protection CTs rather than metering CTs, which typically have a lower knee-point voltage of 60-120V. Having a knee-point voltage in the specified range of 200-1900V confirmed the CTs were suitable for the protection requirements of the power transformer.
Presentation on 132/33 KVSubstation Training Sakshi Rastogi
This is a presentation based on the 132/33 KV substation. At which I have done my vocational Training. this presentation uncovers all the aspects related to the substation.
Protection of lines
Overcurrent Protection schemes
PSM, TMS
Numerical examples
Carrier current and three-zone distance relay using impedance relays
Protection of bus bars by using Differential protection
Presentation on 132/33 KVSubstation Training Sakshi Rastogi
This is a presentation based on the 132/33 KV substation. At which I have done my vocational Training. this presentation uncovers all the aspects related to the substation.
Protection of lines
Overcurrent Protection schemes
PSM, TMS
Numerical examples
Carrier current and three-zone distance relay using impedance relays
Protection of bus bars by using Differential protection
Relay coordination is used to achieve proper fault identification and fault clearance sequence.These relays must be able to differentiate between the normal operating currents that including short time over currents that may appear due to certain equipment normal operation such as motor starting currents, Transformer inrush currents and sustained over current due to fault conditions
Design of power system stabilizer for damping power system oscillationsIOSRJEEE
The problem of the poorly damped low-frequency (electro-mechanical) oscillations of power systems has been a matter of concern to power engineers for a long time, because they limit power transfers in transmission lines and induce stress in the mechanical shaft of machines. Due to small disturbances, power systems experience these poorly damped low-frequency oscillations. The dynamic stability of power systems are also affected by these low frequency oscillations. With proper design of Power System Stabilizer (PSS), these oscillations can be well damped and hence the system stability is enhanced. The basic functions of the PSS is to add a stabilizing signal that compensates the oscillations of the voltage error of the excitation system during the dynamic/transient state, and to provide a damping component when it’s on phase with rotor speed deviation of machine. Studies have shown that PSS are designed to provide additional damping torque, for different operation point normal load, heavy load and leading to improve power system dynamic stability.
Introduction
Oscillations in power systems are classified by the system components that
they effect. Some of the major system collapses attributed to oscillations are
described.
2.2 Nature of electromechanical oscillations
Electromechanical oscillations are of the following types:
B Intraplant mode oscillations
rn Local plant mode oscillations
Interarea mode oscillations
rn Control mode oscillations
rn Torsional modes between rotating plant
2.2.1 Intraplant mode oscillations
Machines on the same power generation site oscillate against each other at 2.0
to 3.0 Hz depending on the unit ratings and the reactance connecting them. This
oscillation is termed as intraplant because the oscillations manifest themselves
within the generation plant complex. The rest of the system is unaffected.
�The sample calculations shown here illustrate steps involved in calculating the relay settings for generator protection.
�Other methodologies and techniques may be applied to calculate relay settings based on specific applications.
Current Transformer and Potential TransformerRidwanul Hoque
One of the major difference between them is that the current transformer converts the high value of current into low value whereas the potential or voltage transformer converts the high value of voltages into low voltage.
This directional over current relay employs the principle of actuation of the relay....It has a metallic disc free to rotate between the poles of two...
Load flow solution is the solution of the network under steady state conditions subjected to certain inequality constraints under which the system operates.
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms a switchgear. This is the very basic definition of switchgear.
⋗To get more with details
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2SvKI7eepP241VLoui1D5A
Relay coordination is used to achieve proper fault identification and fault clearance sequence.These relays must be able to differentiate between the normal operating currents that including short time over currents that may appear due to certain equipment normal operation such as motor starting currents, Transformer inrush currents and sustained over current due to fault conditions
Design of power system stabilizer for damping power system oscillationsIOSRJEEE
The problem of the poorly damped low-frequency (electro-mechanical) oscillations of power systems has been a matter of concern to power engineers for a long time, because they limit power transfers in transmission lines and induce stress in the mechanical shaft of machines. Due to small disturbances, power systems experience these poorly damped low-frequency oscillations. The dynamic stability of power systems are also affected by these low frequency oscillations. With proper design of Power System Stabilizer (PSS), these oscillations can be well damped and hence the system stability is enhanced. The basic functions of the PSS is to add a stabilizing signal that compensates the oscillations of the voltage error of the excitation system during the dynamic/transient state, and to provide a damping component when it’s on phase with rotor speed deviation of machine. Studies have shown that PSS are designed to provide additional damping torque, for different operation point normal load, heavy load and leading to improve power system dynamic stability.
Introduction
Oscillations in power systems are classified by the system components that
they effect. Some of the major system collapses attributed to oscillations are
described.
2.2 Nature of electromechanical oscillations
Electromechanical oscillations are of the following types:
B Intraplant mode oscillations
rn Local plant mode oscillations
Interarea mode oscillations
rn Control mode oscillations
rn Torsional modes between rotating plant
2.2.1 Intraplant mode oscillations
Machines on the same power generation site oscillate against each other at 2.0
to 3.0 Hz depending on the unit ratings and the reactance connecting them. This
oscillation is termed as intraplant because the oscillations manifest themselves
within the generation plant complex. The rest of the system is unaffected.
�The sample calculations shown here illustrate steps involved in calculating the relay settings for generator protection.
�Other methodologies and techniques may be applied to calculate relay settings based on specific applications.
Current Transformer and Potential TransformerRidwanul Hoque
One of the major difference between them is that the current transformer converts the high value of current into low value whereas the potential or voltage transformer converts the high value of voltages into low voltage.
This directional over current relay employs the principle of actuation of the relay....It has a metallic disc free to rotate between the poles of two...
Load flow solution is the solution of the network under steady state conditions subjected to certain inequality constraints under which the system operates.
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms a switchgear. This is the very basic definition of switchgear.
⋗To get more with details
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC2SvKI7eepP241VLoui1D5A
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
This paper introduces the modelling of a novel three phase AC-AC converter with indirect use of a capacitor as DC voltage link. The proposed converter has high efficiency because it uses Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) technique at both rectificier and inverter stages to operate the pulse width modulation in IGBT switches. The novel converter is equipped with a power factor control to shape the rectifier input current waveform to be sinusoidal and to be in phase with the input voltage. To keep the DC voltage stable, the converter utilizes PI controllers. Simulations are conducted for output voltage from 120 to 300 Volts with output frequency ranging from 30 Hz to 60 Hz. The simulation results show that the converter is able to maintain stable the DC voltage and current. Furthermore, the model demonstrates the benefits of proposed converter in terms of acquiring high input power factor and sinusoidal current waveform at the output side of the inverter.
ENHANCEMENT OF ACTIVE POWER FLOW CAPACITY OF A TRANSMISSION LINE USING MSC‐TC...ijiert bestjournal
This paper represents the MSC-TCR scheme of shun t compensation used in FACTS. The laboratory setup of the SVC circuit using a Thyristor controlled reactor in parallel with mechanically switched capacitor will discussed in this paper. Results from the lab setup to exhibit firing angle adjustment to inject or absorb VAr into the system will also be described. During the process,losses happened are also discussed.
Power Quality Improvement Using Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter Based D...IJERA Editor
Cascaded multilevel configuration of the inverter has the advantage of its simplicity and modularity over the
configurations of the diode-clamped and flying capacitor multilevel inverters. This paper presents a threephase,
five-level and seven level cascaded multilevel voltage source inverter based active filter for power line
conditioning to improve power quality in the distribution network. The DSTATCOM helps to improve the
power factor and eliminate the Total Harmonics Distortion (THD) drawn from a Non-Liner Diode Rectifier
Load (NLDRL). The compensation process is based on concept of p-q theory. A CHB Inverter is considered for
shunt compensation of a 11 kV distribution system. Finally a level shifted PWM (LSPWM) and phase shifted
PWM (PSPWM) techniques are adopted to investigate the performance of CHB Inverter. The results are
obtained through Matlab/Simulink software package.
Design of Three-Phase Three-Switch Buck-Type Rectifier for Pre-Charging Appli...IAES-IJPEDS
The main objective of a pre-charging circuit in variable frequency drives is to
pre-charge the DC-bus capacitor without any voltage and current overshoot
within the specified time. In exisiting variable frequency drives seperte precharging
circuits (or) thyristor bridges were used due to this drives power
density, cost becomes high and control technique becomes complex. This
paper presents about the design of three-phase three-switch buck-type
rectifier for pre-charging application used in variable frequency drives which
elimates the disadvantages of existing techniques. In this paper we will
discuss about design procedure of pre-charging circuit of an 800KW
converter with dc-link output voltage of 775V at an input ac voltage of 550V,
60Hz, selection of power and passive components, voltage and current stress
of power transistors. In the final this paper discusses about loss distribution
of the components and comparison of new converter technique with existing
pre-charging techniques.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Modelling and Simulation of Facts Devices TCSC and SVC for A 11 Bus Power Systemijtsrd
Due to the ever increasing demand for power and the growth of the transmission network, transmission lines must now be operated under load, posing a danger of power flow control and voltage instability. This study proposes using TCSC and SVC devices to control power flow in a power system network. The TCSC is a series compensated device that lowers transmission line reactance and improves power flow, whereas the SVC is a shunt compensated device that improves voltage profile. This paper describes a method for modelling and simulation with MATLAB SIMULINK Sim power System block set . For power flow management and voltage stability limit, the appropriate position of TCSC and SVC devices is evaluated. The proposed method is implemented on a two area four machine 11 bus test system model, and the simulated results are shown to validate the test case system. The performance of the TCSC and SVC devices is evaluated in this study, and the simulated results are compared for better power flow regulation in the power system. Vinit K Sharma | Namrata Sant "Modelling and Simulation of Facts Devices (TCSC and SVC) for A 11 Bus Power System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50395.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/50395/modelling-and-simulation-of-facts-devices-tcsc-and-svc-for-a-11-bus-power-system/vinit-k-sharma
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
An Approach to Voltage Quality Enhancement by Introduction of CWVM for Distri...IAES-IJPEDS
This paper presented with problems related with voltage flicker in power
system networks. Several international standard issued to control the voltage
flicker are briefly described and some important methods to analyse
electrical circuits with sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveforms are
introduced and evaluated. One of these methods-Cockcroft Walton Voltage
Multiplier (CWVM) has been used to increase the voltage of a filter, which is
also described in this paper as a practical application. The filter can
compensate for harmonic currents, power factor, and unbalance voltage.The
simulation results using Multisimare presented, showing that good dynamic
and steady-state response can be achieved with this approach.
Similar to Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer Functional Identification (20)
A Novel Method for Prevention of Bandwidth Distributed Denial of Service AttacksIJERD Editor
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks became a massive threat to the Internet. Traditional
Architecture of internet is vulnerable to the attacks like DDoS. Attacker primarily acquire his army of Zombies,
then that army will be instructed by the Attacker that when to start an attack and on whom the attack should be
done. In this paper, different techniques which are used to perform DDoS Attacks, Tools that were used to
perform Attacks and Countermeasures in order to detect the attackers and eliminate the Bandwidth Distributed
Denial of Service attacks (B-DDoS) are reviewed. DDoS Attacks were done by using various Flooding
techniques which are used in DDoS attack.
The main purpose of this paper is to design an architecture which can reduce the Bandwidth
Distributed Denial of service Attack and make the victim site or server available for the normal users by
eliminating the zombie machines. Our Primary focus of this paper is to dispute how normal machines are
turning into zombies (Bots), how attack is been initiated, DDoS attack procedure and how an organization can
save their server from being a DDoS victim. In order to present this we implemented a simulated environment
with Cisco switches, Routers, Firewall, some virtual machines and some Attack tools to display a real DDoS
attack. By using Time scheduling, Resource Limiting, System log, Access Control List and some Modular
policy Framework we stopped the attack and identified the Attacker (Bot) machines
Hearing loss is one of the most common human impairments. It is estimated that by year 2015 more
than 700 million people will suffer mild deafness. Most can be helped by hearing aid devices depending on the
severity of their hearing loss. This paper describes the implementation and characterization details of a dual
channel transmitter front end (TFE) for digital hearing aid (DHA) applications that use novel micro
electromechanical- systems (MEMS) audio transducers and ultra-low power-scalable analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs), which enable a very-low form factor, energy-efficient implementation for next-generation
DHA. The contribution of the design is the implementation of the dual channel MEMS microphones and powerscalable
ADC system.
Influence of tensile behaviour of slab on the structural Behaviour of shear c...IJERD Editor
-A composite beam is composed of a steel beam and a slab connected by means of shear connectors
like studs installed on the top flange of the steel beam to form a structure behaving monolithically. This study
analyzes the effects of the tensile behavior of the slab on the structural behavior of the shear connection like slip
stiffness and maximum shear force in composite beams subjected to hogging moment. The results show that the
shear studs located in the crack-concentration zones due to large hogging moments sustain significantly smaller
shear force and slip stiffness than the other zones. Moreover, the reduction of the slip stiffness in the shear
connection appears also to be closely related to the change in the tensile strain of rebar according to the increase
of the load. Further experimental and analytical studies shall be conducted considering variables such as the
reinforcement ratio and the arrangement of shear connectors to achieve efficient design of the shear connection
in composite beams subjected to hogging moment.
Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’IJERD Editor
Gold has been extracted from northeast Africa for more than 5000 years, and this may be the first
place where the metal was extracted. The Arabian-Nubian Shield (ANS) is an exposure of Precambrian
crystalline rocks on the flanks of the Red Sea. The crystalline rocks are mostly Neoproterozoic in age. ANS
includes the nations of Israel, Jordan. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Yemen, and Somalia.
Arabian Nubian Shield Consists of juvenile continental crest that formed between 900 550 Ma, when intra
oceanic arc welded together along ophiolite decorated arc. Primary Au mineralization probably developed in
association with the growth of intra oceanic arc and evolution of back arc. Multiple episodes of deformation
have obscured the primary metallogenic setting, but at least some of the deposits preserve evidence that they
originate as sea floor massive sulphide deposits.
The Red Sea Hills Region is a vast span of rugged, harsh and inhospitable sector of the Earth with
inimical moon-like terrain, nevertheless since ancient times it is famed to be an abode of gold and was a major
source of wealth for the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The Pharaohs old workings have been periodically
rediscovered through time. Recent endeavours by the Geological Research Authority of Sudan led to the
discovery of a score of occurrences with gold and massive sulphide mineralizations. In the nineties of the
previous century the Geological Research Authority of Sudan (GRAS) in cooperation with BRGM utilized
satellite data of Landsat TM using spectral ratio technique to map possible mineralized zones in the Red Sea
Hills of Sudan. The outcome of the study mapped a gossan type gold mineralization. Band ratio technique was
applied to Arbaat area and a signature of alteration zone was detected. The alteration zones are commonly
associated with mineralization. The alteration zones are commonly associated with mineralization. A filed check
confirmed the existence of stock work of gold bearing quartz in the alteration zone. Another type of gold
mineralization that was discovered using remote sensing is the gold associated with metachert in the Atmur
Desert.
Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
The paper addresses the importance of welding design to prevent corrosion at steel. Welding is
used to join pipe, profiles at bridges, spindle, and a lot more part of engineering construction. The
problems happened associated with welding are common issues in these fields, especially corrosion.
Corrosion can be reduced with many methods, they are painting, controlling humidity, and also good
welding design. In the research, it can be found that reducing residual stress on the welding can be
solved in corrosion rate reduction problem.
Preheating on 500oC and 600oC give better condition to reduce corosion rate than condition after
preheating 400oC. For all welding groove type, material with 500oC and 600oC preheating after 14 days
corrosion test is 0,5%-0,69% lost. Material with 400oC preheating after 14 days corrosion test is 0,57%-0,76%
lost.
Welding groove also influence corrosion rate. X and V type welding groove give better condition to reduce
corrosion rate than use 1/2V and 1/2 X welding groove. After 14 days corrosion test, the samples with
X welding groove type is 0,5%-0,57% lost. The samples with V welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is
0,51%-0,59% lost. The samples with 1/2V and 1/2X welding groove after 14 days corrosion test is 0,58%-
0,71% lost.
Router 1X3 – RTL Design and VerificationIJERD Editor
Routing is the process of moving a packet of data from source to destination and enables messages
to pass from one computer to another and eventually reach the target machine. A router is a networking device
that forwards data packets between computer networks. It is connected to two or more data lines from different
networks (as opposed to a network switch, which connects data lines from one single network). This paper,
mainly emphasizes upon the study of router device, it‟s top level architecture, and how various sub-modules of
router i.e. Register, FIFO, FSM and Synchronizer are synthesized, and simulated and finally connected to its top
module.
Active Power Exchange in Distributed Power-Flow Controller (DPFC) At Third Ha...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a component within the flexible ac-transmission system (FACTS) family, called
distributed power-flow controller (DPFC). The DPFC is derived from the unified power-flow controller (UPFC)
with an eliminated common dc link. The DPFC has the same control capabilities as the UPFC, which comprise
the adjustment of the line impedance, the transmission angle, and the bus voltage. The active power exchange
between the shunt and series converters, which is through the common dc link in the UPFC, is now through the
transmission lines at the third-harmonic frequency. DPFC multiple small-size single-phase converters which
reduces the cost of equipment, no voltage isolation between phases, increases redundancy and there by
reliability increases. The principle and analysis of the DPFC are presented in this paper and the corresponding
simulation results that are carried out on a scaled prototype are also shown.
Mitigation of Voltage Sag/Swell with Fuzzy Control Reduced Rating DVRIJERD Editor
Power quality has been an issue that is becoming increasingly pivotal in industrial electricity
consumers point of view in recent times. Modern industries employ Sensitive power electronic equipments,
control devices and non-linear loads as part of automated processes to increase energy efficiency and
productivity. Voltage disturbances are the most common power quality problem due to this the use of a large
numbers of sophisticated and sensitive electronic equipment in industrial systems is increased. This paper
discusses the design and simulation of dynamic voltage restorer for improvement of power quality and
reduce the harmonics distortion of sensitive loads. Power quality problem is occurring at non-standard
voltage, current and frequency. Electronic devices are very sensitive loads. In power system voltage sag,
swell, flicker and harmonics are some of the problem to the sensitive load. The compensation capability
of a DVR depends primarily on the maximum voltage injection ability and the amount of stored
energy available within the restorer. This device is connected in series with the distribution feeder at
medium voltage. A fuzzy logic control is used to produce the gate pulses for control circuit of DVR and the
circuit is simulated by using MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
Study on the Fused Deposition Modelling In Additive ManufacturingIJERD Editor
Additive manufacturing process, also popularly known as 3-D printing, is a process where a product
is created in a succession of layers. It is based on a novel materials incremental manufacturing philosophy.
Unlike conventional manufacturing processes where material is removed from a given work price to derive the
final shape of a product, 3-D printing develops the product from scratch thus obviating the necessity to cut away
materials. This prevents wastage of raw materials. Commonly used raw materials for the process are ABS
plastic, PLA and nylon. Recently the use of gold, bronze and wood has also been implemented. The complexity
factor of this process is 0% as in any object of any shape and size can be manufactured.
Spyware triggering system by particular string valueIJERD Editor
This computer programme can be used for good and bad purpose in hacking or in any general
purpose. We can say it is next step for hacking techniques such as keylogger and spyware. Once in this system if
user or hacker store particular string as a input after that software continually compare typing activity of user
with that stored string and if it is match then launch spyware programme.
A Blind Steganalysis on JPEG Gray Level Image Based on Statistical Features a...IJERD Editor
This paper presents a blind steganalysis technique to effectively attack the JPEG steganographic
schemes i.e. Jsteg, F5, Outguess and DWT Based. The proposed method exploits the correlations between
block-DCTcoefficients from intra-block and inter-block relation and the statistical moments of characteristic
functions of the test image is selected as features. The features are extracted from the BDCT JPEG 2-array.
Support Vector Machine with cross-validation is implemented for the classification.The proposed scheme gives
improved outcome in attacking.
Secure Image Transmission for Cloud Storage System Using Hybrid SchemeIJERD Editor
- Data over the cloud is transferred or transmitted between servers and users. Privacy of that
data is very important as it belongs to personal information. If data get hacked by the hacker, can be
used to defame a person’s social data. Sometimes delay are held during data transmission. i.e. Mobile
communication, bandwidth is low. Hence compression algorithms are proposed for fast and efficient
transmission, encryption is used for security purposes and blurring is used by providing additional
layers of security. These algorithms are hybridized for having a robust and efficient security and
transmission over cloud storage system.
Application of Buckley-Leverett Equation in Modeling the Radius of Invasion i...IJERD Editor
A thorough review of existing literature indicates that the Buckley-Leverett equation only analyzes
waterflood practices directly without any adjustments on real reservoir scenarios. By doing so, quite a number
of errors are introduced into these analyses. Also, for most waterflood scenarios, a radial investigation is more
appropriate than a simplified linear system. This study investigates the adoption of the Buckley-Leverett
equation to estimate the radius invasion of the displacing fluid during waterflooding. The model is also adopted
for a Microbial flood and a comparative analysis is conducted for both waterflooding and microbial flooding.
Results shown from the analysis doesn’t only records a success in determining the radial distance of the leading
edge of water during the flooding process, but also gives a clearer understanding of the applicability of
microbes to enhance oil production through in-situ production of bio-products like bio surfactans, biogenic
gases, bio acids etc.
Gesture Gaming on the World Wide Web Using an Ordinary Web CameraIJERD Editor
- Gesture gaming is a method by which users having a laptop/pc/x-box play games using natural or
bodily gestures. This paper presents a way of playing free flash games on the internet using an ordinary webcam
with the help of open source technologies. Emphasis in human activity recognition is given on the pose
estimation and the consistency in the pose of the player. These are estimated with the help of an ordinary web
camera having different resolutions from VGA to 20mps. Our work involved giving a 10 second documentary to
the user on how to play a particular game using gestures and what are the various kinds of gestures that can be
performed in front of the system. The initial inputs of the RGB values for the gesture component is obtained by
instructing the user to place his component in a red box in about 10 seconds after the short documentary before
the game is finished. Later the system opens the concerned game on the internet on popular flash game sites like
miniclip, games arcade, GameStop etc and loads the game clicking at various places and brings the state to a
place where the user is to perform only gestures to start playing the game. At any point of time the user can call
off the game by hitting the esc key and the program will release all of the controls and return to the desktop. It
was noted that the results obtained using an ordinary webcam matched that of the Kinect and the users could
relive the gaming experience of the free flash games on the net. Therefore effective in game advertising could
also be achieved thus resulting in a disruptive growth to the advertising firms.
Hardware Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Isolated Circuits And...IJERD Editor
-LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region[5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits.
Simulated Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Different Tank Circu...IJERD Editor
LLC resonant frequency converter is basically a combo of series as well as parallel resonant ckt. For
LCC resonant converter it is associated with a disadvantage that, though it has two resonant frequencies, the
lower resonant frequency is in ZCS region [5]. For this application, we are not able to design the converter
working at this resonant frequency. LLC resonant converter existed for a very long time but because of
unknown characteristic of this converter it was used as a series resonant converter with basically a passive
(resistive) load. . Here, it was designed to operate in switching frequency higher than resonant frequency of the
series resonant tank of Lr and Cr converter acts very similar to Series Resonant Converter. The benefit of LLC
resonant converter is narrow switching frequency range with light load[6] . Basically, the control ckt plays a
very imp. role and hence 555 Timer used here provides a perfect square wave as the control ckt provides no
slew rate which makes the square wave really strong and impenetrable. The dead band circuit provides the
exclusive dead band in micro seconds so as to avoid the simultaneous firing of two pairs of IGBT’s where one
pair switches off and the other on for a slightest period of time. Hence, the isolator ckt here is associated with
each and every ckt used because it acts as a driver and an isolation to each of the IGBT is provided with one
exclusive transformer supply[3]. The IGBT’s are fired using the appropriate signal using the previous boards
and hence at last a high frequency rectifier ckt with a filtering capacitor is used to get an exact dc
waveform .The basic goal of this particular analysis is to observe the wave forms and characteristics of
converters with differently positioned passive elements in the form of tank circuits. The supported simulation
is done through PSIM 6.0 software tool
Amateurs Radio operator, also known as HAM communicates with other HAMs through Radio
waves. Wireless communication in which Moon is used as natural satellite is called Moon-bounce or EME
(Earth -Moon-Earth) technique. Long distance communication (DXing) using Very High Frequency (VHF)
operated amateur HAM radio was difficult. Even with the modest setup having good transceiver, power
amplifier and high gain antenna with high directivity, VHF DXing is possible. Generally 2X11 YAGI antenna
along with rotor to set horizontal and vertical angle is used. Moon tracking software gives exact location,
visibility of Moon at both the stations and other vital data to acquire real time position of moon.
“MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to Extract Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chrom...IJERD Editor
Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), also known as Microsatellites, have been extensively used as
molecular markers due to their abundance and high degree of polymorphism. The nucleotide sequences of
polymorphic forms of the same gene should be 99.9% identical. So, Microsatellites extraction from the Gene is
crucial. However, Microsatellites repeat count is compared, if they differ largely, he has some disorder. The Y
chromosome likely contains 50 to 60 genes that provide instructions for making proteins. Because only males
have the Y chromosome, the genes on this chromosome tend to be involved in male sex determination and
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Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer Functional Identification
1. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com
Volume 11, Issue 06 (June 2015), PP.62-65
62
Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer
Functional Identification
Peter Michael Enyong
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering
Technology; Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Nigeria.
Abstract:- A set of four 2000/1A current transformers (C.T.s) were earmarked for a substation power
transformer protection requirement. It was necessary to investigate the characteristics of these transducers with a
view to confirming whether or not they were protection C.T.s. In this paper the author discusses the open-circuit
laboratory test carried out for the generation of voltage and current data relevant for the production of their
magnetization curves to that effect. MATLAB was used in plotting the magnetization curves. The knee-point
voltage (KVP) of the C.T.s was 1000V as determined from the curves. The C.T.s being observed to possess such
a high value of KVP in each case, were thus confirmed as protection C.T.s. being clearly different from
metering C.T.s whose KVP values are generally within 60 to 120V.
Keywords:- Current Transformer, Knee-point Voltage, Functional Identification.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Definition, Ratings, General Functional Requirements and Classifications
Current transformers (C.T.s) are electromagnetic devices used in power system installations to
reproduce a primary circuit current at a much reduced level for the supply of the current circuits of indicating
instruments and protective relays or for the monitoring/control of a transmission network operation as in the
books in [1], [2]. They usually have primary windings rated at 5 to 15,000A to supply a rated secondary current
of 1 or 5A according to the books in [3], [4]. Generally, they are required: 1) To produce the primary current
conditions at a much lower level so that the current can be carried by the small cross-sectional area cables
associated with panel wiring and relays; and 2) To provide an insulating barrier so that relays which are being
used to protect high voltage equipment need only be insulated for a nominal 600V as in [1]. It should be added
that the performance of a C.T. is determined by the highest current that can be reproduced without saturation to
cause large errors according to the book in [5].
Industries produce indoor and outdoor C.T.s for voltages up to 750kV in various design versions as
regards the method of mounting, purpose and service such as: a) platform C.T.s, for mounting on platforms and
other supports; b) built-in C.T.s, where the primary serves as an input circuit of an electrical device; c) bushing
C.T.s, intended for use as input transformer; d) busbar C.T.s, in which the primary is the busbar of a distribution
device; e) clip-on C.T.s, which are portable detachable split-electromagnet instruments without a primary,
where the magnetic circuit can be split up and then clipped on the conductor to measure the current as in [3].
However, the current transformers considered in this work were to serve as bushing current transformers.
B. Electrical Connection Method and Vital Precautionary Measure
A current transformer is otherwise referred to as a series transformer according to the dictionary in [6].
Thus, the primary winding of a C.T. is usually connected in series with the load to be measured or controlled,
and this load determines the current flowing through it; whilst, the secondary winding is loaded with a constant
impedance, for any given set of conditions as in [6] and according to the manual in [7].
Due to the high turn ratio usually encountered in a C.T., it is possible to obtain an unsafe high voltage
across the secondary terminals of the C.T. The voltage regulation of C.T.s, however, is designed so that the
voltage drops very rapidly as soon as the burden is connected to it. For safety reasons, therefore, the terminals of
the C.T. should always be short-circuited when instruments are not connected to it; the instruments should first
be connected before the short-circuit strap is removed as in the books in [2], [8]. Indeed, for this reason, the
secondary circuit of a current transformer (as well as that of a potential transformer) should always be earthed
according to the book in [9].
2. Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer Functional Identification
63
C. Specific Functional Requirements and Vital Determinant
Current transformers are often used for the dual duty of measurement and protection as stated in the
book in [10]. The functional requirements of a protective C.T. are quite different from those of a metering C.T.
A current transformer designed for measuring purposes operates over a range of current up to a specific rated
value, which usually corresponds to the circuit normal rating, and has specified errors at that value. On the other
hand, a protection current transformer is required to operate over a range of current many times (10 to 20 times)
the circuit rating and is frequently subjected to conditions greatly exceeding those which it would be subjected
to as a measuring or metering current transformer in accordance with the books in [1], [5], [11].
Since the operation of measuring devices and protective relays is to a large extent dependent upon the
magnitude and balance of currents, the performance requirements of C.T.s are frequently specified in terms of
the knee-point voltage of their excitation characteristics as in the manual in [12]. The knee-point voltage of the
excitation characteristics of a C.T. is defined as the point at which a further increase of 10% of secondary e.m.f
would require an increment of exciting current of 50% as in [10], [12]. The knee-point voltage indicates that
voltage above which the C.T. enters into saturation and the exciting current increases rapidly with a very little
increase in voltage as in [10], [12].
According to the book in [11], the knee-point voltage of a metering C.T. is generally around 60 to
120V and is kept low so as to protect meters; whereas, the knee-point voltage of protective C.T.s are generally
quite high varying from 200 to 1900V depending upon the requirements of the relay. The upper limit of 1900V
is specified because the secondary cables from a C.T. are generally rated to withstand 2kV for 1 or 3 minutes
and 660V to 1100V continuously.
II. OPEN-CIRCUIT LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the experimental apparatus. Traces of possible residual magnetism
were removed from the C.T. by having the adjustable auto-transformer (or variac) raised until current
approached secondary winding rating of 1A and steadily reducing the same to zero; this being done ten (10)
times as stated in the manual in [13].
Fig. 1: Apparatus as set-up for Open-circuit Test of a Current Transformer
Care was also exercised when taking the voltage and current readings not to turn the variac backwards
(for any reason) while in the upward direction of adjusting it for increase of exciting voltage. This was to avoid
the introduction of errors in the readings obtained sequel to hysteresis effect, which reflects the lack of
retraceability function in the C.T. core as a ferromagnetic material according to the book in [14]. The results of
the experiment were as given in Table 1.
Table 1: Results of the Open-circuit Tests carried out on the C.T.s
C.T. Labelling C.T.1 C.T.2 C.T.3 C.T.4
Voltage and Current
Readings
Obtained
V mA V mA V mA V mA
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
400 11 400 11 400 11 400 5
600 13 600 13 600 14 600 10
700 15 700 15 700 15 700 12
800 16.5 800 17 800 17 800 15
900 21.5 900 24 900 21 900 22
1000 47 1000 55 1000 52 1000 36
1100 288 1100 290 1100 290 1100 230
3. Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer Functional Identification
64
III. MAGNETIZATION CURVE PRODUCTION
Using MATLAB, the magnetization curves shown in Fig. 1 & 2 were plotted from the voltage and
current readings presented in Table 1.
MATLAB is an acronym for Matrix Laboratory developed by Math Works Inc. as stated in the books
in [15], [16]. This is a software package for high performance and visualization, combining capabilities,
flexibilities, reliability and powerful graphics, hence, suitable for engineers and scientists as found in the
journals in [17], [18] as well as the institutional compilation in [19]. The most important feature of MATLAB is
its programming capability, which is relatively easy to learn and to use, and which allows user-developed
functions as stated in the journal in [20].
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A close study of the magnetization curves in Fig. 1 & 2 reveals that the four current transformers,
C.T.1, 2, 3 and 4, do possess the same knee-point voltage of value 1000V. This is because just after the 1000V
point on the curves one observes the exciting current increasing rapidly with a very little increase in voltage as
earlier stipulated in the introductory part of this work (see ‘Specific Functional Requirements and Vital
Determinant’).
Going by such a high value of knee-point voltage (falling between 200V and 1900V clearly), it is
conclusive that the C.T.s were actually protective current transformers.
Fig. 1a) & b): MATLAB Generated Magnetization Curves A &
B for C.T. 1 & 2, respectively.
Current [Miliamps]
Voltage[Volts]
0 100 200 300
0
500
1000
1500
CURVE (A)
( a)
Current [Miliamps]Voltage[Volts]
0 100 200 300
0
500
1000
1500
CURVE (B)
( b)
Fig. 2a) & b): MATLAB Generated Magnetization Curves C &
D for C.T. 3 & 4, respectively.
Current [Miliamps]
Voltage[Volts]
0 100 200 300
0
500
1000
1500
CURVE (D)
(d)
Current [Miliamps]
Voltage[Volts]
0 100 200 300
0
500
1000
1500
CURVE (C)
(c)
4. Knee-Point Voltage Determination for Current Transformer Functional Identification
65
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