The document summarizes the kinetic molecular theory and gas laws. It explains that kinetic molecular theory models gases as particles in constant, random motion that exert pressure during collisions. It describes the gas laws of Boyle's law, Charles' law, Gay-Lussac's law, Avogadro's hypothesis, and Dalton's law of partial pressures which relate the variables of pressure, volume, temperature, and moles of gas. Examples are provided to illustrate applications of the gas laws.
Kinetic Gas Theory including Ideal Gas Equation. Temperature, Volume, Applications
Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law. Ideal Gas Theory, Dalton's Partial Pressure
Includes the principles of the KMT and their application to molecular behavior.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
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Kinetic Gas Theory including Ideal Gas Equation. Temperature, Volume, Applications
Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law. Ideal Gas Theory, Dalton's Partial Pressure
Includes the principles of the KMT and their application to molecular behavior.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
This power point work describe about polar and nonn polar compounds and how to find it very easily and it also explain dipole moment and its calculation...this includes some workout problems
Organic compounds are almost 60% of all compounds. because of carbons tendency to form a compound as it has more than1 electron(4electrons) to form covallent compounds. SO a wide range of everything we eat is formed from carbon and hydrogen, which is the second important element to form organic compounds.
This power point work describe about polar and nonn polar compounds and how to find it very easily and it also explain dipole moment and its calculation...this includes some workout problems
Organic compounds are almost 60% of all compounds. because of carbons tendency to form a compound as it has more than1 electron(4electrons) to form covallent compounds. SO a wide range of everything we eat is formed from carbon and hydrogen, which is the second important element to form organic compounds.
Using a Detailed Chemical-Kinetics Mechanism to Ensure Accurate Combustion Si...Reaction Design
Today’s market opportunities for combustion systems require focus on high-efficiency, low emissions and fuel-flexibility. In three previous white papers , we have discussed how use of detailed chemical kinetics in combustion simulation can provide accurate emissions predictions, simulate fuel effects and help gain insight into instability phenomena like Lean Blow Off (LBO). All of these topics focus on the use of high-fidelity chemistry simulation models for advanced combustion simulation by using highly accurate and detailed kinetics mechanisms. This white paper describes what a detailed kinetics mechanism is, how it is developed and validated and how it can be used in high-fidelity combustion simulation models to accelerate advanced combustion technology development.
Properties of gases: gas laws, ideal gas equation, dalton’s law of partial pressure, diffusion of gases, kinetic theory of gases, mean free path, deviation from ideal gas behavior, vander wails equation, critical constants, liquefaction of gases, determination of molecular weights, law of corresponding states and heat capacity
2 main factors determine state:
The forces (inter/intramolecular) holding particles together
The kinetic energy present (the energy an object possesses due to its motion of the particles)
KE tends to ‘pull’ particles apart
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
2. POSTULATES:
Gases are composed of a many particles that behave like
hard spherical objects in a state of constant, random
motion
These particles move in a straight line until they collide
with another particle or the walls of the container
These particles are much smaller than the distance
between particles, therefore the volume of a gas is mostly
empty space and the volume of the gas molecule
themselves is negligible
3. There is no force of attraction between gas particles or
between the particles and the walls of the container
Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls
of the container are elastic. That is, none of the energy of
the gas particle is lost in a collision.
The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles is
dependent only upon the temperature of the gas
The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles
depends on the temperature of the gas and nothing else
4. Kinetic Energy
The energy of motion
Directly proportional to the mass of the object and to
square of its velocity
KE = _1_ mv2
2
where m = mass
v = velocity
5. GAS LAWS:
Gases have various properties which we can
observe with our senses, including the
gas pressure, temperature, mass, and
the volume which contains the gas
Scientific observation has determined that
these variables are related to one another, and
values of these properties determine the state of
the gas
6. Pressure in a closed container changes if
1.temperature changes
2.number of molecules increases or decreases
3.volume changes
7. Using the Kinetic Molecular Theory to explain
the Gas Laws
The Relationship Between P and n
Boyle's Law
Amonton's Law
Charles' Law
Avogadro's Hypothesis
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
8. Relationship between P and n
Pressure (P) is the force exerted on the walls
of the container during a collision
An increase in the number of particles (n)
increases the frequency of collisions with the
walls
Therefore, P increases as n increases.
9. Boyle’s Law
By Robert Boyle (1600s) - observed that the product
of the pressure and volume are observed to be nearly
constant
p (V) = C
Compressing a gas makes the V smaller but does not
alter the average KE of the molecules since
temperature is constant
Though the speed of the particles remains constant,
the frequency of collisions increases because the
container is smaller
Therefore, P increases as V decreases.
10. Key Points:
•Temperature and moles of gas are constant
•Graph is hyperbolic and asymptotic to both axes
•Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to
each other
11. Equation:
P1V1 = P2V2
where P1 is the pressure of a quantity of gas with
a volume of V1
P2 is the pressure of the same quantity of
gas when it has a volume V2
12.
13. Example:
1. Given a container of air with an initial volume of 28
L and pressure of 40 Pa, calculate the pressure if
the volume is changed to 141 L.
2. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas is a component of car exhaust
and power plant discharge, and it plays a major role in the
formation of acid rain. Consider a 3.0 L sample of gaseous
SO2at a pressure of 1.0 atm. If the pressure is changed to
1.5 atm at a constant temperature, what will be the new
volume of the gas?
3. Find the pressure on 5.25 L of gas that was originally 3.12
L at 1.54 atm
14. CHARLE’S LAW
By Jacques Charles
The average KE of a gas particle is proportional
to T
Since mass is constant, the average velocity of
the particles must increase (KE = 1/2mv2)
At higher velocity, the particles exert greater
force which increases P
If the walls are flexible, they will expand to
balance the atmospheric pressure outside
Therefore, V is directly proportional to T
15. Key Points:
• Pressure and moles of gas are constant
• Graph is linear
• Volume and temperature are directly
proportional to each other
17. Example:
1. A 5.0 L vessel of gas is held at 25°C. What will be the
new volume if the temperature is doubled?
2. What change in volume results if 60.0 mL of gas is
cooled from 33.0 °C to 5.00 °C?
3. Given a container of helium gas with an initial volume of
496 L and temperature of 6.4 °C,
calculate the volume if the temperature is changed to -
16.9 °C.
18. Gay-Lussac’s Law
By Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850)
Key Points:
-- Volume and moles of gas are constant
-- Graph is linear (see below)
-- Pressure and temperature are directly
proportional to each other
20. Example:
1) 25.0 L of a gas is held in a fixed container at 1.25 atm at
20°C. What will be the pressure of the gas if the
is increased to 35°C?
2) If a gas is cooled from 323.0 K to 273.15 K and the volume
kept constant what final pressure would result if the
pressure was 750.0 mm Hg?
21. AMONTON’S LAW
The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the
Temperature (Kelvin) at a constant V and n
22. Absolute Zero – The temperature (-273.15
degrees C or 0 Kelvin) at which the volume and
pressure of an ideal gas extrapolated to zero.
-- Proposed by Joseph Lambert in 1779
Where: TK is measured in Kelvin
T0C is measured in Celsius
23. DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
Assumptions:
Gases must be unreactive and follow ideal gas
behavior
the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the pressures of each individual gas
By John Dalton
24. Example:
1. The pressure of a mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen is 150 kPa. What is the partial pressure of oxygen if
the partial pressures of the nitrogen and carbon dioxide
100 kPA and 24 kPa, respectively?
2. A container holds three gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide,
helium. The partial pressures of the three gases are 2.00
atm, 3.00 atm, and 4.00 atm, respectively. What is the total
pressure inside the container?
25. AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS
By Amadeo Avogadro
The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
moles of the gas, n at constant P and T
The hypothesis that equal volumes of different
gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of particles
26. Avogadro's law can be expressed by the formula:
_Vi_ = _Vf_
ni nf
Where:
Vi = initial volume
ni = initial number of moles
Vf = final volume
nf = final number of moles
27. Example:
1. A 6.0 L sample at 25 °C and 2.00 atm of pressure
contains 0.5 moles of a gas. If an additional 0.25
moles of gas at the same pressure and temperature
are added, what is the final total volume of the gas?
Editor's Notes
The pressure of a gas results from collisions between the gas particles and the walls of the container. Each time a gas particle hits the wall, it exerts a force on the wall. An increase in the number of gas particles in the container increases the frequency of collisions with the walls and therefore the pressure of the gas
Gases can be compressed because most of the volume of a gas is empty space. If we compress a gas without changing its temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas particles stays the same. There is no change in the speed with which the particles move, but the container is smaller. Thus, the particles travel from one end of the container to the other in a shorter period of time. This means that they hit the walls more often. Any increase in the frequency of collisions with the walls must lead to an increase in the pressure of the gas. Thus, the pressure of a gas becomes larger as the volume of the gas becomes smaller.
Asymptotic - A curve and a line that get closer but do not intersect are examples of a curve and a line that are asymptotic to each other
This means that if nothing else changes, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to pressure it is under. It is a linear relationship. If pressure on a gas doubles, its volume will decrease by 1/2.
Answer: 7.9 Pa or 8 pa
V2 = 2.0 L.
P2 = 0.915 atm
The average kinetic energy of the particles in a gas is proportional to the temperature of the gas. Because the mass of these particles is constant, the particles must move faster as the gas becomes warmer. If they move faster, the particles will exert a greater force on the container each time they hit the walls, which leads to an increase in the pressure of the gas. If the walls of the container are flexible, it will expand until the pressure of the gas once more balances the pressure of the atmosphere. The volume of the gas therefore becomes larger as the temperature of the gas increases
As the number of gas particles increases, the frequency of collisions with the walls of the container must increase. This, in turn, leads to an increase in the pressure of the gas. Flexible containers, such as a balloon, will expand until the pressure of the gas inside the balloon once again balances the pressure of the gas outside. Thus, the volume of the gas is proportional to the number of gas particles