1. Gases have certain physical properties according to the kinetic molecular theory including occupying the shape and volume of their container, being highly compressible, and mixing evenly.
2. The gas laws describe the relationships between pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of gas including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, and the combined ideal gas law.
3. Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressures as described by the van der Waals equation.
The Avogadro constant, represents the number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. the value of Avogadro constant is 6.0221421 푥 10^23. How many atoms of K-40 (Radioactive isotope) are present in 225 mL of whole milk containing 1.65 mg K/mL?
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
The fundamentals of chemical equilibrium including Le Chatier's Principle and solved problems for heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibrium.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
The Avogadro constant, represents the number of carbon-12 atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. the value of Avogadro constant is 6.0221421 푥 10^23. How many atoms of K-40 (Radioactive isotope) are present in 225 mL of whole milk containing 1.65 mg K/mL?
I Hope You all like it very much. I wish it is beneficial for all of you and you can get enough knowledge from it. Clear and appropriate objectives, in terms of what the audience ought to feel, think, and do as a result of seeing the presentation. Objectives are realistic – and may be intermediate parts of a wider plan.
The fundamentals of chemical equilibrium including Le Chatier's Principle and solved problems for heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibrium.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
What constitutes waste depends on the eye of the beholder; one person's waste can be a resource for another person.[1] Though waste is a physical object, its generation is a physical and psychological process.[1] The definitions used by various agencies are as below.
United Nations Environment Program
According to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989, Art. 2(1), "'Wastes' are substance or objects, which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law".[2]
United Nations Statistics Division
The UNSD Glossary of Environment Statistics[3] describes waste as "materials that are not prime products (that is, products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded."
European Union
Under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Art. 3(1), the European Union defines waste as "an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard."[4] For a more structural description of the Waste Directive, see the European Commission's summary.
Types of Waste
Municipal Waste
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development also known as OECD defines municipal solid waste (MSW) as “waste collected and treated by or for municipalities”. [5] Typically this type of waste includes household waste, commercial waste, and demolition or construction waste. In 2018, the Environmental Protection Agency concluded that 292.4 tons of municipal waste was generated which equated to about 4.9 pounds per day per person. Out of the 292.4 tons, approximately 69 million tons were recycled, and 25 million tons were composted. [6]
Household Waste and Commercial Waste
Household waste more commonly known as trash or garbage are items that are typically thrown away daily from ordinary households. Items often included in this category include product packaging, yard waste, clothing, food scraps, appliance, paints, and batteries.[7] Most of the items that are collected by municipalities end up in landfills across the world. In the United States, it is estimated that 11.3 million tons of textile waste is generated. On an individual level, it is estimated that the average American throws away 81.5 pounds of clothes each year.[8] As online shopping becomes more prevalent, items such as cardboard, bubble wrap, shipping envelopes are ending up in landfills across the United States. The EPA has estimated that approximately 10.1 million tons of plastic containers and packaging ended up landfills in 2018. The EPA noted that only 30.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
4. 4
In the table
H2S and HCN are deadly poisons.
CO, NO2 , O3 , and SO2 , are somewhat less toxic.
He, Ne, and Ar are chemically inert.
Most gases are colorless. Exceptions are F2 , Cl2 , and NO2 .
O2 is essential for our survival.
5. 5
1. Assume the volume and shape of their
containers.
All gases have the following physical
characteristics
2. Are the most compressible state of matter.
3. Will mix evenly and completely when
confined to the same container.
4. Have much lower densities than liquids and
solids.
6. 6
Units of Pressure
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
1 atm = 760 mmHg (= 760 torr)
1 atm = 101,325 Pa
Pressure =
Force
Area
(Force = mass x acceleration)
Pressure of a Gas
SI Units of Pressure
N/m2
The actual value of atmospheric pressure depends on location,
temperature, and weather conditions.
7. 7
Sea level 1 atm
4 miles 0.5 atm
10 miles 0.2 atm
A column of air extending from sea level to the upper
atmosphere.
The
barometer
is the most
familiar
instrument
for
measuring
atmospheric
pressure
8. 8
The pressure outside a jet plane flying at high altitude falls
considerably below standard atmospheric pressure.
Therefore, the air inside the cabin must be pressurized to
protect the passengers. What is the pressure in atmospheres
in the cabin if the barometer reading is 688 mmHg?
Example
10. 10
Manometers Used to Measure Gas Pressures
closed-tube open-tube
A manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of
gases other than the atmosphere.
To measure pressures below
atmospheric pressure.
To measure pressures equal
to or greater than
atmospheric pressure.
11. 11
P a 1/V
P x V = constant
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law
Constant temperature
The Gas Laws
The pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant
temperature is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
Constant amount of gas
13. 13
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 800 mL at a
pressure of 750 mmHg. What is the pressure of the gas (in
mmHg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 200
mL?
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
P1 = 750 mmHg
V1 = 800 mL
P2 = ?
V2 = 200 mL
P2 =
P1 x V1
V2
750 mmHg x 800 mL
200 mL
= = 3000 mmHg
P x V = constant
Example
14. 14
As T increases V increases
The Temperature-Volume Relationship:
Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law
15. 15
V a T
V = constant x T
V1/T1 = V2 /T2
T (K) = t (oC) + 273.15
Temperature must be
in Kelvin (SI-unit)
When these lines
are extrapolated,
or extended, they
all intersect at the
point representing
zero volume and
a temperature of -
273.15 oC.
16. 16
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 398 K. At
what temperature will the gas occupy a volume of 1.54 L if the
pressure remains constant?
V1 = 3.20 L
T1 = 398 K
V2 = 1.54 L
T2 = ?
T2 =
V2 x T1
V1
1.54 L x 398 K
3.20 L
=
= 191.5 K
V1 /T1 = V2 /T2
Example
17. 17
V a number of moles (n)
V = constant x n
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Constant temperature
Constant pressure
At constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas present
The Volume-Amount Relationship:
Avogadro’s Law
18. 18
The Ideal Gas Equation
Charles’ law: V a T (at constant n and P)
Avogadro’s law: V a n (at constant P and T)
Boyle’s law: V a (at constant n and T)1
P
V a
nT
P
V = constant x = R
nT
P
nT
P
R is the gas constant
PV = nRT
Combination of all three expressions:
ideal gas equation
19. 19
At 0°C (273.15 K) and 1 atm pressure (standard temperature
and pressure (STP)), many real gases behave like an ideal.
PV = nRT R =
PV
nT
=
(1 atm)(22.414L)
(1 mol)(273.15 K)
R = 0.082057 L • atm / mol • K
Experiments show that at STP, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies
22.414 L.
Ideal gas: a hypothetical gas whose molecules occupy negligible
space compared with the volume of the container and have no
interactions.
For most calculations:
R = 0.0821 L • atm / mol • K
20. 20
A certain light bulb containing argon at 1.20 atm and
18 oC is heated to 85 oC at constant volume. What
is the final pressure of argon in the light bulb (in
atm)?
PV = nRT n, V and R are constant
nR
V
=
P
T
= constant
P1
T1
P2
T2
=
P1 = 1.20 atm
T1 = 291 K
P2 = ?
T2 = 358 K
P2 = P1 x
T2
T1
= 1.20 atm x 358 K
291 K
= 1.48 atm
Example
21. 21
What is the volume (in liters) occupied by 49.8 g of HCl at STP?
PV = nRT V =
nRT
P
T = 273.15 K P = 1 atm
n = 49.8 g x
1 mol HCl
36.45 g HCl
= 1.37 mol
V =
1 atm
1.37 mol x 0.0821 x 273.15 KL•atm
mol•K
V = 30.7 L
Example
23. 23
Density Calculations
d = m
V
=
PM
R T
m: the mass of the gas in g
M: the molar mass of the gas
in g/mol
dRT
P
M = d: is the density of the gas in g/L
n= m /MPV = n RT PV = m/MRT
or PM = m / V RT
24. 24
A 2.10 L vessel contains 4.65 g of a gas at 1.00 atm and 27.0
oC. What is the molar mass of the gas?
dRT
P
M = d = m
V
4.65 g
2.10 L
= = 2.21
g
L
M =
2.21
g
L
1 atm
x 0.0821 x 300.15 KL•atm
mol•K
M = 54.5 g/mol
Example
25. 25
Gas Stoichiometry
Example: What is the volume of CO2 produced at 37 oC and
1.00 atm when 5.60 g of glucose are used up in the reaction:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
g C6H12O6 mol C6H12O6 mol CO2 V CO2
5.60 g C6H12O6
1 mol C6H12O6
180 g C6H12O6
x
6 mol CO2
1 mol C6H12O6
x = 0.187 mol CO2
V =
nRT
P
0.187 mol x 0.0821 x 310.15 K
L•atm
mol•K
1.00 atm
= = 4.76 L
26.
27. • According to the kinetic molecular theory, the gas
particles in a mixture behave independently, i.e.
each gas exerts a pressure independent of the
other gases in the mixture.
• All gases in the mixture have the same volume and
temperature.
• The pressure of a component gas in a mixture is
called a partial pressure.
• The sum of the partial pressures of all the gases in
a mixture equals the total pressure.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
29. 29
Consider a case in which two gases, A and B, are in a
container of volume V.
PA =
nART
V
PB =
nBRT
V
nA is the number of moles of A
nB is the number of moles of B
PT = PA + PB
PA = XA PT
PB = XB PT
Pi = Xi PT mole fraction (Xi ) =
ni
nT
31. 31
Collecting Gases
• Gases are often collected by having them displace
water from a container.
• The problem is that since water evaporates, there is
also water vapor in the collected gas.
• The partial pressure of the water vapor, called the
vapor pressure, depends only on the temperature. So
you can use a table to find out the partial pressure of
the water vapor in the gas you collect.
• If you collect a gas sample with a total pressure of
758 mmHg at 25 °C, the partial pressure of the
water vapor will be 23.8 mmHg, so the partial
pressure of the dry gas will be 734 mmHg
(Dalton’s law )
35. 35
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Assumptions
1. A gas is composed of molecules (or atoms) that are separated
from each other by distances far greater than their own
dimensions. The molecules can be considered to be “points”; that
is, they possess mass but have negligible volume.
2. Gas molecules are in constant motion in random directions,
and they frequently collide with one another. Collisions among
molecules are perfectly elastic. In other words, energy can be
transferred from one molecule to another as a result of a
collision. Nevertheless, the total energy of all the molecules in a
system remains the same.
3. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on
one another.
36. 36
4.The average kinetic energy of the molecules is
proportional to the temperature of the gas in kelvins. Any
two gases at the same temperature will have the same
average kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of a
molecule is given by
KE = ½ mu2
where m is the mass of the molecule and u is its speed
According to the kinetic molecular theory, gas pressure is
the result of collisions between molecules and the walls of
their container.
37. 37
Application to the Gas Laws
• Compressibility of Gases: gases can be compressed
easily to occupy less volume.
• Boyle’s Law
P a collision rate with wall
Collision rate a number density (per unit volume)
Number density a 1/V
P a 1/V
• Charles’ Law
P a collision rate with wall, which comes from raising T.
Collision rate a average kinetic energy of gas molecules
Average kinetic energy a T
P a T
38. 38
• Avogadro’s Law
P a collision rate with wall
Collision rate a number density
Number density a n
P a n
• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Molecules do not attract or repel one another
P exerted by one type of molecule is unaffected by the
presence of another gas
Ptotal = SPi
39. 39
The distribution of speeds
for nitrogen gas molecules
at three different temperatures
The distribution of speeds
of three different gases
at the same temperature
Distribution of Molecular Speeds
41. 41
Gas diffusion:
The gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of
another by virtue of their kinetic properties.
NH3
17 g/mol
HCl
36 g/mol
NH4Cl
r1
r2
M2
M1=
molecular path
42. 42
Gas effusion:
The process by which gas under pressure escapes from one
compartment of a container to another by passing through a
small opening.
=
r1
r2
t2
t1
M2
M1=
Nickel forms a gaseous compound of the formula Ni(CO)x. What
is the value of x given that under the same conditions methane
(CH4) effuses 3.3 times faster than the compound?
r1 = 3.3 x r2
M1 = 16 g/mol
M2 =
r1
r2
( )
2
x M1 = (3.3)2 x 16 = 174.2
58.7 + x • 28 = 174.2 x = 4.1 ~ 4
43. 43
Deviation from Ideal Behavior
Plot of PV/RT
versus P of 1
mole of a gas
at 0°C
For 1 mole of an ideal gas, PV/RT is equal to 1, no matter what
the pressure of the gas is.
For real gases, we observe various deviations from ideality at
high pressures.
At very low pressures, all gases exhibit ideal behavior; that is,
their PV/RT values all converge to 1 as P approaches zero.
44. 44
Van der Waals equation
nonideal gas
P + (V – nb) = nRTan2
V2( )
}
corrected
pressure
}corrected
volume
45.
46.
47. H.W.
Using the van der Waals equation, calculate the pressure exerted
by 15.0 mol of carbon dioxide confined to a 3.0 L vessel at 329 K.
Note: Values for a and b in the van der Waals equation:
a = 3.59 L
2
.atm/mol
2
, b = 0.0427 L/mol.
A) 23.2 atm
B) 2.16 atm
C) 81.9 atm
D) 96.4 atm
