Introduction to Volatile Oils (2).docx

Volatile Oil
These are odorous organic substances. They are called volatile oil because they
are volatile in nature. They are also known as “Essential oils” because they have
essence present in them. They possess ether like appearance on touch therefore
also referred to “Etheral oil.”
Biosynthetic synthesis of volatile oils:
Volatiles oils are secondary metabolites. There are produces majorly by either of
the two ways;
 Mevalonic acid Pathway: It gives isopentinyl pyrophosphate by C3 cycle.
 Shikimic acid pathway: It gives three amino acids i.e. L-tyrosine, L-
tryptophan, L-phenylalanine.
Volatile oils occur in the form of;Oleoresin, Resin, Gum. There are some volatile
oils which are produced by the hydrolysis of glycosides. For example bitter
almond oil, mustered oil.
Occurrence and localization of Volatile oils;
They occur in various tissues of the plant. They are commonly found in;
 Glandular hairs i.e. Labiate
 Modified paranchyma cells i.e. Piperaceae
 Oil tubes called vittae cells i.e. Umbelliferae
 Lysigenous or Schizogenous cavities i.e. Pinaceae
 May be formed directly by protoplasm by decomposition of resinous layer
of cell wall or by hydrolysis of certain glycosides e.g. mustered oil and bitter
almond oil.
 They may occur in all tissues e.g. conifers, petals (rose petals), bark
(cinnamon), leaves (thyme), wood (sandal wood), rhizome (ginger), fruit
(fennel), seed (nutmeg).
Physical properties:
1. Most of the volatile oils are colorless.
2. They are lighter than water.
3. They have distinct odor.

4. They are optically active e.g. camphor.
5. Immiscible with water.
6. They are freely soluble in ether, chloroform, alcohol and acetone.
Official tests for volatile oil evaluation:
These are the following tests which are officially performed for the evaluation of
volatile oils.
 Odor and taste
 Optical rotation
 Relative density
 Reflective index
 Foreign esters
 Presence of water
Volatile oil content of a crude drug is generally determined by distillation process.
The apparatus used for the separation of volatile oil fromthe sourceis “Clevenger
Apparatus.” It separates both type of volatile oils which are either lighter or
heavier than water.
Chemical Tests:
The presence of the volatile oil can be detected by the following test;
- To the thin section of crude drug add alcoholic solution of Sodan III (diazo
dye) red color is obtained by the globules indicate presence of volatile oil.
- Take section of the crude drug, to the thin section of crude drug a drop of
tincture Alkane is added. Red color is observed, indicate the presence of
volatile oils.
Storage:
Volatile oils are liable to deteriorate on storage and it is indicated by;
 The change in color
 An increase in viscosity of oil
 The change in odor of oil

Therefore volatile oils should be preserved properly in well closed, well filled
containers away from light and they should be stored in cool place.If the
container is not filled up to top than air present cause oxidation of oil or nitrogen
is used to replace air present.
Physiologic Response:
Each isomer of any volatile oil have different physiologic response. In drugs only
one of the enantiomer is responsible for the desired physiological effect, while
the other enantiomer is less active or inactive or sometimes is responsible for the
adverse effects.
Example: Carvone which occur both in Levo and Dextro rotatory form. Dextro
rotatory Carvone produce odor in caraway fruit. While the Levo rotatory Carvone
produce odor in spearmint.
The stereochemistry of volatile constituent determines the type of olfactory
responses evoked by the compounds. Geometric isomerism is shown;
 Aromatic isomerism (Ortho, Meta, Para)
 Linear isomerism (Cis, Trans)
Isomerismis responsible for quality and strength of odour. Limonene, borneol, α-
terpinol, these shows stereo-isomerism.

Uses:
The main useof volatile oil is flavoring agents, perfuming agents, cosmetics and in
pharmaceuticals. They are also used for medicinal agents;
 Volatile oil are used as carminative e.g. Umbelliferae
 Volatile oil are used as antiseptic e.g. Eucliptol
 Volatile oil are used as counter irritant e.g. oil of winter green
 Volatile oil are used as diuretic e.g. juniper berries, belladonna
 Volatile oil are used as local irritant e.g. turpentine oil, capsicum
 Volatile oil are used as Insect repellent. Similarly all volatile oil containing
plats are insect attractants.

Methods of obtaining Volatile oils
Volatile oils can be obtained by the following methods;
1. Distillation
a. Water Distillation
b. Water Steam distillation
c. Direct Steam distillation
d. Destructive Distillation
2. Expression
a. Sponge method
b. Scarification process
c. Raspings process
d. Mechanical process
3. Enzymatic hydrolysis
4. Enfleurage & Digestion
5. Extraction or Maceration
6. Super critical fluid extraction
1. Distillation:
Volatile oil is obtained by various types of distillation processes discussed below;
a. Water Distillation:
Heat stable volatile oils are obtained by this process. Dried crude drug is
used for the processing. Turpentine oil is obtained by this process.
In this method the dried drug is placed with water in the distilling chamber,
it is then heated on flame. The heat causes the evaporation of water and
volatile oil. The evaporated mixture of volatile oil and water passes through
the condenser and the liquid mixture is collected into the receiver. The
liquid mixture is then transferred to the separation funnel with n-hexane
and shaken vigorously so that oil moves from water to n-hexane. The n-
hexane due to high volatility evaporate rapidly and thus volatile oil is
obtained.
b. Water and Steam distillation:

In this type of distillation dried or fresh substances areused as precursor. It
is a good method for the volatile oils that can be injured by heat. Clove oil is
obtained by this process.
In this method fresh (cut into small pieces) or dried (powdered) drug is
taken and it is soaked with water. Steam is produced and it is allowed to
pass through the soaked drug. It will take away volatile oil to the receiver.
The liquid mixture is then transferred to the separation funnel with n-
hexane and shaken vigorously so that oil moves from water to n-hexane.
The n-hexane due to high volatility evaporate rapidly and thus volatile oil is
obtained.
In order to remove water from volatile oil sodium sulphate can also be
used.

c. Direct Steam distillation:
In this method fresh plant parts are used. The frequency of the steam
passed should be managed while using this process. Spearmint and
peppermint oil is obtained by this process.
The fresh crude drug is taken and it is kept in the metal distilling tank on
truck bed (try drier bed). The truck bed is then placed into the distilling
chamber. The forced steam is then allowed to pass with a constant
frequency through the sample. It will take away volatile oil to the receiver.
The liquid mixture is then transferred to the separation funnel with n-
hexane and shaken vigorously so that oil moves from water to n-hexane.
The n-hexane due to high volatility evaporate rapidly and thus volatile oil is
obtained.
d. Destructive distillation:
The method is useful in obtaining those oils which are obtained by heat i.e.
empyreumatic oils. The process is carried out in the absence of air.
In this process solid (resin/ wood) heated up to decomposition. Two layers
are obtained;
 Aqueous layer, it gives methyl alcohol (wood naphtha), crude acetic
acid (pyroligenous)
 Tarey layer, it gives pine tar, juniper tar.
2. Expression:
Volatile oils that undergo decomposition on being subjected to distillation are
obtained by expression method. The method is used for the Volatile oils that are
found in the rind of the fruit e.g. orange, lemon.
Commercially, the method is useful to preserve natural fragrance that can be
deteriorate by distillation process. The methods of expression are discussed
below;
a. Sponge Method:

In this method firstof all the citrus fruit is washed. Then it is cut into halves,
the rind is turned inside out by hand. It is then squeezed. In this way the
secretary cells are ruptured, and oozed oil is collected by means of sponge.
b. Scarification process:
Ecuelle a Piquer is a large bowl which is meant for pricking the outer
surface of the citrus fruit. Now, place the freshly washed fruit in the bowl,
rotate the fruit repeatedly until oil glands are punctured. The oil is
discharged into handle. Oil is collected and decanted or filtered.
c. Raspings Process:
In this method the citrus fruit is peel off carefully with grater. Now place
the raspings in horsehair bags. The bags are pressed strongly so that, oil will
ooze out from the oil glands. Initially the collected oil will be turbid but on
standing oil separates out and it is then decanted or filtered.
d. Mechanical Process:
Now a daysMechanical devices are most commonly used for obtaining
volatile oils. It includes heavy duty centrifugal devices. By the used of these
devices, the production of volatile oil has remarkably increased.

3. Enzymatic hydrolysis:
In this process the volatile oils which occur in the form of glycosides they are
hydrolyzed by the enzymes. And thus they are obtained.
Example:
 Sinigrin in present in black mustered when is it hydrolyzed then Allyl
Isothiocyanate (volatile oil), Glucose and Potassium sulphate is obtained.
 Benzaldehyde, bitter almond oil is obtained by the enzymatic hydrolysis of
amygdalin.
Amygdalin
HCN (Hydrocyanic acid) +
Benzaldehyde + 2 d-Glucose
4. Enfleurage & Digestion
Enfleurage:Enfleurmeans to put into
flower. A thick layer of molten lard and
tallow (beef fat) is applied on either
surface of glass plates that are securely placed in wooden frame called as chasis.
In each plate the top surfaceis sprinkled with fresh flower petals. These plates are
stacked one over the other and enclosed in wooden frames. Each layer of the
flowers is enclosed between two layers of fat. The plates are allowed to remain
for 24 hours. After it that the flowers are recharged with fresh lots.
This process is repeated for several weeks till the fatty layers
become fully saturated with required essential oil. This is a very
costly way to obtain essential oil and is now a days only
sometimes used to extract essential oil from tuberoses and
jasmine.
Digestion: Fresh flowers are carefully heated in molten fat (lard,
tallow or fixed oil) until it is completely exhausted. The flowers
are strained. Then the fat is allowed to cool. Oil is recovered with
absolute alcohol after the end of process.

5. Extraction or Maceration:
The process is used for the plant sources which contain small amount of volatile
oils or when the contents are extremely susceptible to decomposition by
exposure to steam.
It is divided into two categories
 Extraction with volatile solvents
 Extraction with non- volatile solvents
Volatile oil is extracted with low boiling solvent such as n-hexane, benzene,
petroleum ether either by Soxhlet or percolation method.
6. Supercritical FluidExtraction SCF:
Supercritical fluids (SCFs) are increasingly replacing the organic solvents that are
used in industrial purification and recrystallization operations because of
regulatory and environmental pressures on hydrocarbon and ozone-depleting
emissions.
SCF processes applied in the polymers, pharmaceuticals, lubricants fine chemicals
industries. SCFs areadvantageously applied to increasing productperformanceto
levels that cannot be achieved by traditional processing technologies, and such
applications for SCFs offer the potential for both technical and economic success.
A supercritical fluid (SCF) ischaracterized by physical and thermal properties that
are between those of the pure liquid and gas. At critical point there is no
difference between the densities of gas and liquid. In comparing a liquid sample
with a supercritical fluid (SCF) sample of the same fuel both possessing the same
density, thermal conductivity but diffusivity of a SCF are higher than the liquid, its
viscosity is much lower, while its surface tension and heat of vaporization have
completely disappeared.

Concretes:
Concretes contain about 50 % wax and 50 % essential oil (jasmine).They aremore
stable and concentrated than pure essential oils.
Pomades:
True pomades are (volatile oil) products of a process known as enfleurage (hot or
cold).Enfleurage is used for obtaining aromatic materials from flowers containing
volatile oils to produce perfume long after they were cut.
Resinoids:
They are prepared from natural resinous material (dried material) by extraction
with a non-aqueous solvent for e.g. Petroleum ether or n-hexane.
Example: Balsams – Peru balsam or benzoin; resins (amber); Oleoresin (copaiba
balsam); Oleogum resins (myrrh)
Absolutes:
They are obtained froma concrete, pomade, or a resinoid by alcoholic
extraction.The extraction process may be repeated.The ethanol solution is cooled
& filtered to eliminate waxes.Theethanol is then removed by distillation.They are
usually highly concentrated viscous liquids.

Chemistry of Volatile Oil
Volatile oils are in the most cases are the mixtures of various compounds of
different chemical nature. They usually contain two parts.
• Hydrocarbon portion:
They are generally called Eleoptene. It is terpene or triterpene derivatives. It is
liquid in nature but it is solid in some cases for e.g. thymol, menthone and
anethol. It is formed via Acetate-mevalonic acid pathway.
• Oxygenated hydrocarbon portion:
They are generally called Stearoptene. It is Solid in nature but it
is liquid in somecases for e.g. eugenol, eucliptol. Itis formed by
Shikimic-Acid Pathway. It is important for imparting odor to
the oil.
Many volatile oils consist largely of Terpenes. Terpenes are
defined as “natural products whose structure may be divided
into isoprene units.
A. Hemiterpenes:
They are consistof only only one isoprene unit, and are thus simplest members of
terpenoids.IPP & DMAPP are reactive hemiterpene intermediates in pathways
leading to more complex terpenoid structure.Relatively few of the true
hemiterpenes are produced in nature.
Example:Isoamyl alcohol, it is found as an ester in menthe species.
B. Monoterpenes:
They are consist of two isoprene units. The monoterpenes are most often found
in volatile oils.

They can occur in acyclic, mono cyclic, and bicyclic as a hydrocarbon portion annd
in case of oxygenated hydrocarbon portion they occurs such as alcoholic, ketonic,
aldehydic, phenolic, amidic, and esteric.
These are further classified as;
 Acyclic:
Acyclic monoterprnrs considered as derivatives of 2, 6-dimethyl octane.

 Monocyclic:
Monocyclic monoterpenes are derived from cyclohexane with and
isopropyl substitution.
 Bicyclic:
 Tricyclic:

C. Sesqyiterpenes:
It contains 3 to 5 isoprene subunits. Sesquiterpene comes from a Latin prefix that
is ‘sesqui’ that means ‘one and a half time.’
These mechanism is just closely parallel to those seen for monoterpenes.Addition
of a further C5 IPP to GPP in the presence of GPP synthase leads to the formation
of sesquiterpene precursors FPP. FPP can give rise to the linear and cyclic
sesquiterpenes.
These are further classified as;
 Acyclic:
 Monocyclic:
 Monocyclc:

D. Diterpenes:
These are oxidized derivatives of four isoprene units. These are resinous
substances found in various plant parts;
 Di-pimaric acid
 Abietic acid
 Gibberellins
 Vitamin A
 Beta carotene (Carotenes of the plants are
converted into vitamin A into the liver of
animals.)
They arise from GGPP. It is formed by the addition of
a further IPP molecule to FPP in the presence of
GGPP synthase in the same manner as described for
the lower terpenoids.
It is one of the simplest & most important difference is phytol; a reduced form of
geranyl/ geraniol, which forms the lipophilic side chain of the chlorophylls.
The general formula of such terpene is hown in the diagram. These are further
classified into five classes mentioned below;
 Acyclic:
It is found in combination with chlorophyll.
 Monocyclic:
It is found in combination with camphor in camphor oil.

 Dicyclic:
Agathis acid, it is found in Agathis alba.
 Tricyclic:
They are abundantly found in pinus species.
 Tetracyclic:
It is found in podocarpus species.

E. Triterpenes:
These have 6 isoprene subunits. They are found in resins in the form of esters or
glycosides.
Example:
 Quinovic acid in cinchona.
 Olvic acid in olive.
Two molecules of FPP joined in Tail-to-Tail fashion to yield Squalene in general.
Squalene is a hydrocarbon originally isolated from the liver oil of the shark, but
subsequently found in rat liver and yeast. And these systems were used to study
its biosynthetic role as a precursor of triterpenes and steroids.
 Formation of presqualene PP is initiated by the attack of the 2, 3-double
bond of FPP onto the Fernesyl cation which is mechanistically equivalent to
normal chain extension using IPP.
 The resultant tertiary cation is discharged by ions of a portion and
formation of a cyclopropane ring giving Presqualene PP.
 An exactly analogous squalene is used for the origin of regular
monoterpeens.
 To formsqualene C-10 of two FPP units eventually be coupled. Presqualene
PP formation has actually joined C-1 of one molecule to the C-2 of the other
molecule.
 To account for the subsequent change in bonding of the two FPP units, a
further cyclopropane cationic intermediates are proposed. Loss of di
phosphate from Presqualene PP would give an unfavorable primary cation.
 Where via Wanger-Meerwein rearrangement can generate a tertiary
carbocation and achieve the require bond, and finally results in the
formation of squalene.
These are further classified into three classes mentioned below;
 Acyclic:

 Tetracyclic:
 Pentacyclic:
F. Tetraterpeniods:
These have almost 8 isoprene units. These are carotenoid pigments and are
yellow or orange-red in color. They are found along with chlorophyll in
photosynthetic tissues.
Itis only represented by one group of compounds, the carotenoids though several
hundred naturel variations are known.Formation of tetraterpenens skeleton
involves tail to tail coupling of two molecules of GGPP.Carotenoids function along
with chlorophylls in photosynthesis.
 Acyclic:

G. Polyterpenoids:
They are compounds with many isoprene subunits.
Example: Rubber
Rubber is a
polyisoterpenoid product
produced in the latex of
300 genera of
angiosperms. Only Hevea
genus is used
commercially for the
production of rubber in Malaysia & Indonesia.
Rubber form Hevea barsiliensis is a Cis-polymer contain 3000-6000 isoprene
units.
H. Mixed terpenoids:
These are the compounds containing both terpenoids and monoterpenoid
components. They are sugar or fatty acid.
Example: Terpenoid glycosides and terpenoid esters.
Pyrethrin is found in Crysanthemum species.
Cannabinol and Cannabidiol are found in the cannabis.

I. Stearoptenes:
Another major group of volatile oils is stearoptenes or Phenly Propanoids.
These compounds contain the 6c phenyl ring with an attached 3C propane side
chain. Many of the phenyl propanoids found in volatile oils are phenols or phenol
esters.
Example:

They are classified into following classes;
 Acyclic:
 Monocyclic:
 Bicyclic:
 Tricyclic:
Longifolene from Pinus longifolia.

Classification of Volatile oils
On the bases of their structural formulas they are classified as;
a. Hydrocarbon volatile oil e.g. Cubeb, Turpentine oil.
b. Alcoholic volatile oil e.g. Peppermint, Coriander, Cardamom.
c. Aldehydic volatile oil e.g. Bitter almond oil, Bitter orange peel, Sweet
orange peel, Lemon, Cinnamon.
d. Ketonic volatile oil e.g. Camphor, Spearmint, Bachu, Caraway.
e. Phenolic volatile oil e.g. Clove, Thyme.
f. Phenolic ether volatile oil e.g. Fennel, Anise, Myristica.
g. Oxide volatile oil e.g. Euclayptus, Chenopodium.
h. Ester volatile oil e.g. Rosemary
i. Miscellaneous volatile oil e.g. Allium, Anethum.
A. Hydrocarbon volatile oils:
In this type of volatile oil the volatile oil drug is chiefly composed of hydorocarbon
portion. These occur particularly in all volatile oils.
 Monocyclic monoterpenes: They are most widely distributed terpenes.
Limonene, it is present in citrus, mint, myristica, caraway, thyme, cardamom,
coriander etc.
Paracymene found in coriander, thyme, cinnamon and myristica oil.
 Dicyclic monoterpens: They are less common than monocyclic.
Pinene found in conifer, lemon, anise, eucalyptus, thyme, fennel, and coriander.
Sabinene is found in cardamom and lemon oil.
 Acyclic monoterpenes: Theyare rare.
Myrecene is present in lemon and myristica oil.
 Sesquiterpene: Among the sesquiterpenes;
Cadinene is present in juniper tar.

β-caryophylline is present in worm wood, peppermint, cinnamon, and clove oil.
The drugs include in this category are:
(i) Turpentine oil
(ii) Cubeb berry

(i) Turpentine oil
Botanical origin:
Pinus palustris, Pinus longifolia,
Pinus maritima, Pinus halepensis
Family: Pinaceae
Part used: Oleoresin
Habit: Tree
Habitat:
Pinus species are widely distributed and many countries have pinus reserves.
Pinus palustris is found in USA and South. Pinus longifolia is found in Indian &
Pakistan. Pinus maritima is found in France, Italy & Spain. Pinus halepensis is
found in Spain and Greece.
Collection:
The physiological product of pinus is obtained by up & gutter Box method.
Turpentine oil is rectified by distillation from an aqueous solution of NaOH and
thus rectified turpentine oil is obtained.
Pharmacognostic features:
The drug turpentine oil is a colorless liquid having a characteristic odor and taste.
Constituents:
It contains a colophony resin “Rosin,” turpentine oil, terpine hydrate as well.
Turpentine oil is the largest volume essential oil it is used in pharmaceutical
industries.
Similarly a commercial product terpinol; is formed by the action of nitric acid on
rectified turpentine oil 9in the presence of alcohol.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as expectorant.

- As expectorant is acts directly on bronchial secretary cells in lower
respiratory system.
- It is usually given with codeine to liquefy the secretions.
- It is a direct stimulant to mucous membrane.

(ii) Cubeb berry
Botanical origin: Piper cubeba
Family: Piperaceae
Part used: Dried fully grown unripe berries.
Habit: Perennial Shrub
Habitat:The cubeb plant is indigenous to Indonesia. It is now naturalized parts of
Asia too.
Constituents:
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting sabinene, α-
thujene,carenecaryophyllene, copaene, cubebene, cadinene, germacrene,
cubebic acid and the alcohol cubebol.
About 15% of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water. Cubebene,
the liquid portion, is a pale green or blue-yellow viscous liquid with a warm
woody, slightly camphoraceous odor. It is then undergo rectification by water.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as diuretic.
- Internally it is used as an antiseptic for urinary and digestive infections.
- Small concentrations are used to treat bronchitis.
- It is used as pungent, acrid, and aromatic.
- It is used to treat flatulent.
Diagram & Structure:

B. Aldehydic volatile oils
Aldehyde owing volatile oils may be divided into;
Cyclic or Aromatic: vanillin and cinnaldehyde.
Acyclic: Citral and Citronellal
(i) Bitter orange peel
Botanical origin:Citrus aurantium
Family: Rutaceae
Part used: Fresh/ Dried outer part of the rind/pericarp
Habit: Tree
Habitat:
Native to North India but cultivated in subtropical
countries especially South, Spain, Sicily, Morocco and Malta.
Collection:
Fruit is collected before they got ripe completely and packed in paper.
Pharmacognostic features:
The drug turpentine oil is a colorless liquid having a characteristic odor and taste.
Constituents:
It contain volatile oils 1 – 25%. Among the volatile oils Limonen is present 90%.
Small quantities of aldehyde; citral, citronellal and methy anthranilate. The bitter
taste is due to a bitter amorphous
glycoside Aurantiamarin and
Aurantiamaric acid. It also contains
Naringin (a flavane C-glycoside),
vitamin C, isoprenidine, and hesperidin.
Medicinal uses:

- It is used as aromatic.
- It is used as stomachic.
- It is used as carminative.
- It is used as flavoring agent.
- It is one of the component of aromatic elixirs.

(ii) Sweet orange peel
Botanical origin:Citrus aurantium
Family: Rutaceae
Constituents:
It mainly contain volatile oils. The main volatile oil is
Limonene, present 90%. While 5% Citral, aldehyde and
methyl ester of anthranilic acid, linalool, and terpinol.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as tonic & flavoring agent.
- Fresh rind is rubbed on the fare for acne.
(iii) Lemon
Botanical origin:Citrus limon
Limon-------------limun-----------name of fruit
Family: Rutaceae
Part used: Fresh/ Dried outer part of the rind/pericarp
Habit: Tree
Habitat:
Indigenous to North India but cultivated in subtropical countries especially Spain,
& Italy.
Collection:
The fruits are collected when they are about 80% ripe and the color changes from
green to yellow. Fresh lemon peel is separated along with the inner white pithy
part.

On other hand dried peel is separated using sharp knife.
Constituents:It mainly contains lemon oil.
It oil contains about 90% of terpene consisting chiefly of (+)limonene, the main
hydrocarbon which is 70-80%. The other monoterpene HC are β-pinene and ɣ-
terpinene. The flavor is due to neral and geranial (citral).
Primary esters are neryl and geranyl acetates are thought to be responsible for
full-bodied lemon flavor.
Small quantityof hesperidin, a bitter principle, flavone glycosides, mucilage,
pectin, and Ca-oxalate crystals.
Precaution:Lemon oil that has terebinthinate odor must not be used or
dispensed b/c it indicates decomposition of terpenes or addition of turpentine oil.
Terpeneless oils:Lemon oil and orange oil are subjected to distillation under
reduced pressure for the removal of terpenes. The terpeneless lemon oil with
citral content 40-50% and 95% for orange oil.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as stomachic.
- It is used as condiment.

(iv) Cinnamon
Botanical origin: Cinnamomum loureirii(Saigon cinnamon)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum(Ceylon cinnamon)
C. cassia(Cassia cinnamon)
Family: Lauraceae
Part used: Dried bark
Habit: Tree
Habitat: It is indigenous to South East Asia.
Cinnamon -----------Arabic-------------kinamon
Loureirii----------------French botanist----------Loureiro
Constituents:
Saigon ------------2-6%
Cassia-------------0.5-1.5%
Ceylon-------------0.5-1%
The Cinnamon oil obtained fromthis plant majorly contains cinnamaldehyde 25%.
Other chemical components of the essential oil include eugenol (found mostly in
the leaves), cinnamyl acetate, and anethol, ethyl cinnamate, β-
caryophyllene, linalool, and methyl chavicol.
It also contains mannitol and tannins
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as analgesic.
- Antiseptic
- Carminative and pungent aromatic
- It is used as insect repellent.

(v) Bitter Almond oil
Botanical origin: Prunus amygdalus
Family: Rosaceae
Part used: Dried, ripe kernels of bitter almonds
Habit: Tree
Habitat: It is cultivated in North Africa Morocco,
Algeria, Egypt, & Spain and, more recently, in the
USA.
Constituents:
The oil is obtained by the steam distillation, but prior to distillation, the fixed fatty
oil is freed from the kernels by expression, and then the powdered cake is
macerated in water to split the glucoside.
It contains 35 to 55 % fixed oil, 3 to 4 % amygdalin. The amygdalin, is cleaved
enzymatically to yield benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid (HCN
also known as prussic acid) and d-glucose.
Among the other constituents it contain 0.005% prunasin,
proteins, emulsin, amino acids, fatty acids, sterols, Vitamin
A, B & E.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as aromatic in perfumery industries.
- It is used as antispasmodic.
- In low doses act as diuretic.
- Externally used as moisturizer, emollient and demulcent.
- Externally used s local anesthetic.
- It is also used as bactericidal, germicidal, and fungicidal.
- The oil is also used as flavoring agent in carbonated and alcoholic beverage
industries.
- Due to presence of Vitamin E it is useful in delaying the aging process.
Structures:

Amygdalin HCN (Hydrocyanic acid) + Benzaldehyde +
2 d-Glucose

C. Ketonic Volatile oils
Monocyclic terpene ketone: carvone, piperitone, pulegone, diosphenol.
Dicyclic terpene ketone: camphor, fenchone, thujone.
(i) Spearmint
Botanical origin:Mentha spicata
Family: Umbelliferae
Part used: Dried Leaves and Flowering Tops.
Habit: Perennial Herb
Habitat: Native to Mediterranean region. Commonly present western Asia,
Europe and Middle East.
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is carvone. Among the other essential oils there is
dihydroxycarvone, limonene, cineol, α-pinene and phellandrene are present.
Medicinal uses:
- They are used as an antiseptic.
- They are used as carminative.
- They are used as expectorant.
- They are also used as astringent.
- The oils are used in aroma therapy.
- Oils are also used in the industry of
cosmetics, soaps
and
perfumes.
Diagram &
Structure:

(ii) Caraway
Botanical origin: Carum carvi
Part used: Dried ripe Fruit
Habit: Shrub
Habitat:
Native to Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Germany, India, North Africa
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is carvone present up to 65%, fenchone, sabinene, limonine,
β-pinene, carveol, carvacrol, dihydrocrviol, myrcene.
Medicinal uses:
- Its oil has the strong fungicidal action.
- It is used as stimulant.
- It is used as carminative
- The drug is recommended in dyspepsia as
a tonic and to treat flatulent in digestion.

(iii) Bachu
Botanical origin:Barosma serratifolia, Barosma betulina
Family: Rutaceae
Part used: Dried leaves
Habit: Under shrub
Habitat: it is found in South Africa.
Constituents:
Bachu leaves contain 1.5 to 2.5 % volatile oils. Volatile oils contain 30%
diosphenol. Among the others are limonene, dipentene, menthone (responsible
for smell), diosmin (a flavone glycosides), and mucilage.
Medicinal uses:
Due to development of modern medicine it is less common used in medicine, but
it has following uses;
- It is used as antiseptic.
- It is used as Diuretic.
- Itis used in Sexual transmitted diseases (STD) like Gonorrhea, & leucorrhea.
- It is used as Carminative.

(iv) Camphor
Botanical origin:Cinnamomum camphora
Family: Lauraceae
Part used: Volatile oil obtaining from wood by steam distillation.
Habit: Tree
Habitat: Indigenous to Eastern Asia but now naturalized to Mediterranean region;
Sri Lanka, Egypt, South Africa and Brazil.
Natural camphor occur as a crystalline product in clefts in woody stems and roots
dissolved I volatile oil. The wood is chipped and distilled with steam. The crude
camphor is then freed of oil by centrifugation and pressing and finally sublimeand
pressed into cakes.
Synthetic camphor made from pinene. A complex method is used which involves
the following steps
Conversion of pinene into bornyl ester
Hydrolyzation to isobroneol.
Oxidation to camphor.
Specific rotation of natural camphor is +41 and +43
Synthetic camphor is optically in active.
Constituents:
The oil is available in small colorless crystals or blocks. Specific isolation of
camphor is brought about 41o
C to 43o
C while the synthetic camphor is optically
inactive.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as cardiac and respiratory stimulant.
- Internally it is an antiseptic and carminative.
- Externally it is used as topical antiseptic and rubifacient and anti-infective.
- Camphor liniment is used as counter irritant.

- It is used to kill internal parasites, the action is carried out in low
concentration.
- It is one of the best natural decongestant.
Pinene Hydrogen chloride
Borneol Isoborneol
Camphor

D.Phenolic volatile oils
Two kinds of phenols occur in volatile oils,
Those are present naturally
Those are produced as a result of destructive distillation.
(i) Thyme
Botanical origin: Thymus vulgaris
Family: Labiatae
Part used: Dried Leaves and flowering Tops
Habit: Perennial shrub
Habitat: Indigenous to Spain, cultivated in USA, Germany and Australia.
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is thymol, carvacrol, cymene, borneol, linalool and
camphene.
Thyme oil may be prepared synthetically from m-cresol or p-cymene
Or obtained naturally
The oil may be treated in two ways to obtain thymol crystals.
1)- by subjecting to freezing temp.
2)-Treated with NaOH solution, the aqueous solution of Na-thymol being
separated and decomposed liberating thymol which is subsequently crystallized.
Thyme oil BP is obtained by stream distillation of fresh aerial parts and contains
thymol 36-55 %, carvacrol, terpinene, along with linalool.
Among the other constituents there is Caffeic acid and tannins.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as antioxidant.

- It is used as anti tussive
- Commercially the oil is used in mouth washes tooth pastes and cough
preparations.
- It is used as orally for the treatment of GIT disturbances, and symptomatic
treatment of cough.
- It is locally used for the treatment of minor wounds.
- It is used as antalgic (pain killer) for disorders of oral cavity and used for
oral hygiene.
Structure & Diagram:

(ii) Clove
Botanical origin: Eugenia caryophyllus
Family: Myrtaceae
Part used: Dried Flowering buds
Habit: Tree
Habitat: Native to the Moluuku islands in Indonesia.
Eugenia------------Latin word
Caryophyllus------------Greek------------nut leaf--------refers to nut like flower bud
Clove-----------------Latin-----------------clavus---------------nail---------shape of bud.
Constituents:
The Clove oil is comprises of 72 to 90 % Eugenol, and it is responsible for the
aroma. Other constituents include acetyl eugenol, β-caryophyllene and vanillin.
It contains tannins such asgallotannic acid, and methyl salicylate (pain killer). It
also contains triterpenoids like oleanolic acid and stigmasterol and
several sesquiterpenes.
Medicinal uses:
- Antiseptic
- Used as toothache remedy

E. Phenolic Ether Volatile oil
(i) Fennel
Botanical origin: Foeniculum vulgare
Habit: Shrub
Habitat: Indigenous to Mediterranean countries and Asia. Cultivated in France,
India and Russia.
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is anethol which is present 40% to 50%, then the other is
fenchone, the third is the methyl chavicol, limonene, α-pinene, anisaldehyde,
camphene and cineol.
Fennel oil has β- pinene, anisic acid, phelandrine and anisic aldehyde.
Among the other constituents it contains fixed oils and proteins.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as anti-inflammatory.
- Fennel increases the lactation and permutes menstruation.
- Fennel increases the production of bile used in the treatment of infant
colic.
- Commercially oil is used as a fragrant in soap, washes, perfumes etc.

(ii) Anise
Botanical origin: Pimpinella anisum
Habit: Annual herb
Habitat: It is cultivated in European countries.
Constituents:
It contains 23% volatile oils. The main volatile oil is anethol, which is present 80%
to 90%. Others are chavicol, anise ketone, terpene hydrocarbons are present.
Among the other constituents it contains fixed oil, starch and protein.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as Aromatic
- It is used as Flavoring agent.
- It is sweet in taste therefore it is used in mouth and dental preparations.

(iii) Myristica
Botanical origin: Myristica fragran
Family: Myristicaceae
Part used: Dried ripe suds
Habit: Tree
Habitat: It is indigenous to Molua and neighboring islands, and it is cultivated in
other tropical regions i.e. West Indies.
Constituents:
It contains 8% to 15% volatile oil. The main volatile oil is myristicin and safrole. It
also contains 25% to 40% fixed oils (solid at room temperature) and sometimes
occur in prismatic crystals (nutmeg butter).
Oil contains methoxy eugenol, camphene, β-terpinol, β-pinene, myrecene,
Limonene and sabinene.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used in controlling diarrhea associated with certain carcinomas.
- It is used as Condiment.
- It is used as Hallucinogenic agent.

F. Alcoholic volatile oils
(i) Coriander
Botanical origin: Corriandrum sativum
Part used: Dried ripe fruit
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Cultivated in central and eastern Europe, particularly Russia, and Africa.
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is coriandrol (linalool) then borneol, paracymene, α-pinene,
camphor, geraniol, malic acid & tannic acid.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as stimulant.
- The oil is used as expectorant and as an appetizer.
- It is used as diaphoretic.
- The oil is externally applied for the treatment of rheumatism.
- In children it is used to treat diarrhea, digestive upsets, anorexia and
flatulent.
Diagram &
Structure:

(ii) Peppermint
Botanical origin: Mentha piperita
Family: Labiatae
Part used: Dried Leaves and Flowering Tops.
Habitat: Indigenous to Europe, cultivated in USA and Canada.
Constituents:
The major volatile oil is menthol and menthone, menthal occurs mostly in free
alcohol form with small quantities as acetate and valerate esters other mono
tenpins are Iso-menthone. 1, 8- Cineol, α-pinene, β-pinene, Limonene, Neo-
menthol, mentho furan.
Inert constituents: Among the other constituents it contains resins and tannins.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as analgesic.
- It is used as anti-inflammatory.
- It is used as antiseptic, and flavoring agent in pharmaceuticals, food,
alcohol and soft drinks.
- Menthol is valuable anti-neuralgic and helpful in removing symptoms of
sinusitis, bronchitis. For this purpose it is mixed with camphor and
eucalyptus oil
and given in the
form of
inhalations and
ointments.
Diagram &
Structure:

(iii) Cardamom
Botanical origin: Elettaria cardamomum
Family: Zingiberaceae
Part used: Dried capsules with seeds
Habit: Perennial herb
Habitat:Native to South Eastern Asia from India south to Sri Lanka and east
to Malaysia and western Indonesia. Naturalized to Nepal, Vietnam, Thailand,
and Central America.
Constituents:
Cardamom seeds are fragrant; the taste is warm, pungent, and highly
aromatic.The seeds contain 8% volatile oils. The oil contain α-terpineol,
myrcene, limonene, menthone, borneol, 1,8-cineol, and sabinene.
It is also reported to have terpenyl acetate & phellandrene.
Medicinal uses:
- T is used as aromatic.
- It helps in digestion and used to treat colic.

G. Oxide Volatile oil
(i) Eucalyptus
Botanical origin: Eucalyptus globulus
Family: Myrtaceae
Part used: Dried leaves
Habit: Tree
Habitat: It is native to Australia, Tasmania and cultivated in South, France and
Spain.
Pharmacognostic features: Tree requires much water and has been used to dry
up the marsh land.
Constituents:
The main volatile oil is Eucalyptus oil. It contains 70% t0 85% Cineol, terpene
hydrocarbon, pinene, Camphene. While the butyric, valric, caproic aldehyde in
small quantities. The compounds that are present in small quantities have irritant
properties and thus are removed by re-distillation of the oil.
The oil can also be obtained from other species. According to pharmacopoeial
standard the cineol should be not less than 70% and it must be free from large
amount of phellandrene.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as Antiseptic.
- It is used as Diuretic.
- It is used as Diaphoretic.
- It is used as Expectorant and in other respiratory diseases.
- It is used as inhaler and in nasal drops and nasal ointments.
- It is used externally as counter irritant in swelling and inflammation.
- It is used as for massage in rheumatism.

(ii) Chenopdium
Botanical origin: Chenopodium ambrosioides
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Part used: Fresh or Dried flowering or fruiting tops.
Habit: Herb
Habitat: It is cultivated in Germany, Europe, Australia, and USA.
Constituents:
The herb contains 0.4% volatile oil while, the fruit contain 1% to 4% volatile oil.
Volatile oil contains 60% to 80% terpene peroxides as ascaridol. Others are p-
cymene, α-terpinene, 1-terpene, camphor.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as anthelmintic especially against hook worms and pin worms.
- It also has anti-diabetic activity.

H.Ether volatile Oil
The important volatile oil of this class are; terpineol,
borneol, gereniol, mustered oil and wintergreen oil.
(i) Rosemary
Botanical origin: Rosmarinus officinalis
Family: Lamiaceae or Labiatae
Part used: Fresh or Dried flowering tops.
Habitat: Native to Europe oil is produced principally in Spain and North Africa.
Constituents:
Volatile oils contain 0.8 to 6 % esters, and 8 to 20 % alcohols. The principle
constituents are 1, 8-cineol, borneol, camphor, bornyl acetate.
Leaves contain triterpene alcohol, alpha & beta amyrin, rosamarinic acid, and
chlorogenic acid.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used in perfumery industry.
- It is used as antioxidants and for the preservation of food.
- The oil is used for the treatment of GIT disturbances.
- Topically it is used to clear nasal passage for cold.
- It is used in mouth washes.

I. Miscellaneous Volatile oil
(i) Anethum
Botanical origin: Anethum graveolens
Part used: Dried ripe fruit
Habit: Annual herb
Habitat: Indigenous to southern Europe. Cultivated in England, Germany,
Kashmir, India, and USA.
Constituents:
It is also called European due and Dill fruits.
It contain 3 to 4 % volatile oils, and 20% fixed oils & proteins. The essential oil
contain 50 to 60 % d-carvone. Limonene and other terpenes.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as Stimulant.
- Oil of dill is used in mixtures, preparations of dill water.
- It is used to treat flatulence of infants and also used as a vehicle for
children’s medicine.

(ii) Allium
Botanical origin: Allium sativum
Family: Liliaceae
Part used: Ripe bulb
Habit: Herb
Habitat: It is cultivated in India, south Russia, Europe, Italy and USA.
Constituents:
The main constituents are volatile oils containing Allyl disulphide, Alliin, Allicin,
Allyl propyl disulphide, Diallyl disulphide. It also contains Thioglycosides, Amino
acids, Fatty acids, Vitamins, Mucilage, and Albumin.
Medicinal uses:
- It is used as anthelmintic.
- It is used as diuretic.
- It is used as diaphoretic.

Introduction to Volatile Oils (2).docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Introduction to Volatile Oils (2).docx

Similar to Introduction to Volatile Oils (2).docx (20)

More from ZORAIZ HAIDER

More from ZORAIZ HAIDER (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Introduction to Volatile Oils (2).docx