This document provides information about volatile oils (also called essential oils). It discusses their composition, sources, extraction methods, classification, and uses. Volatile oils are complex mixtures derived mainly from plants. They contain terpenes and aromatic compounds that give plants their distinctive smells and flavors. Common sources include various plant parts like flowers, leaves, seeds, bark, and roots. Extraction methods include steam distillation, solvent extraction, and mechanical processes. Their chemical structures and properties determine their classification and applications in perfumes, foods, and traditional medicine.

1. VOLATILE OILS

2. Introduction
 The odorous volatile principles of plant and animal
sources are known as volatile oils.
 As they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary
temperatures, they are also called as ethereal oils.
 They represent essence or active constituents of plant,
hence they are also called as essential oils.
 They are derived from terpenes and their oxygenated
compounds.
 They are made up of isoprene units (C5H8) and usually
mono, sesqui and diterpene

3. Occurrence
 Secreted in special structures such as duct, cell,
schizogenous or lysigenous glands, trichomes etc.
 Commonly found in family like Labiatae, Rutaceae,
Piperaceae, Zingiberaceae, Umbelliferae, Myrtaceae and
Lauraceae

4. Composition
 Mixture of hydrocarbon and oxygenated compounds
 Derived from hydrocarbon
 Odor and Taste of volatile oil is mainly determined by
oxygenated compounds.
 Oils are terpenoids in nature
 Cinnamon and Clove contain principally aromatic
(benzene) derivatives mixed with terpene
 Thymol and Carvacol although aromatic in structure are
terpenoid in nature.

5. Chemistry
 Chemical Property:
 Characteristic odour
 Soluble in alcohol, ether and other lipid solvents and
practically insoluble in water.
 Lighter than water (except: clove oil)
 Physical Property:
 High refractive index
 Optically active
 Terpeneless Volatile oil: They are volatile oil which are
processed to remove hydrocarbon and undesired
components by fractional distillation.

6. Origin
• In few cases the volatile oil does not pre-exist, but is
formed by the decomposition of a glycoside.
1. Whole mustard seeds are odorless but up on crushing the
seeds and adding water to it a strong odor is evolved, this
is due to allyl iso thiocyante (the main constituent of
essential oil of mustard) formed by decomposition of a
glycoside, sinigrin, by an enzyme myrosin.
2. Bitter almond oil (decomposition of glycoside)
3. Roots (Vetiver)
4. Bark (Cinnamon)
5. Heart wood (Sandal wood)
6. Leaves (Peppermint)
7. Seeds (Nutmeg)
8. Flowers (Canaga & Jasmine)

7. General method of Extraction
 Steam distillation, Solvent extraction and mechanical means such as
Euelle and Effleurage techniques.
 Hydro-distillation: Water distillation, water and steam distillation, leaf
drug (Hydro distillation), air dried subterranean parts extracted by
steam distillation.
 Effleurage: extraction of delicate perfumes
 The fresh flower petals are mechanically spread on layer of fatty
material, allowed to imbibing and the exhausted petals replaced by
fresh material. The process is continued till the fatty layer is
saturated with volatile principles which are then extracted with lipid
solvents.
 The pneumatic method: involves the passage of a current of warm
air through the flowers. The air, laden with suspended volatile oil, is
pssed through a spray of melted fat in which the volatile oil is
absorbed.

8. Effleurage
Ecuelle
Pointed
projection

9. General method of Extraction
 Digestion: The flowers are gently heated in melted fat
until exhausted, when they are stained out and the
perfume containing fat is allowed to cool. The fatty base
is extracted with alcohol.
 Ecuelle: Extraction of citrus oils, wherein oil cells in rind
are ruptured mechanically using pointed projections by
twisting raw material over them in clockwise direction
either mechanically or manually.
 Liquid Carbon dioxide: LCO is used to extract essential
oils. Liquefied under pressure, it acts as a solvent
reserving back to gaseous nature when pressure is
reduced leaving no residue of solvent.

10. Therapeutic Uses
• Therapeutically(Eucalyptus Oil)
• Flavouring (Lemon)
• Perfumery (Rose)
• Carminative (Clove)
• Inhalation (Eucalyptus oil)
• Orally (Peppermint)
• Gargle & Mouth wash (Thymol) due to high phenol interferes
with bacterial respiration
• Transdermal (Lavender, Rosemary)
• Antimicrobial (Basil-Tulsi)
• Starting materials to synthesize other compounds (Oil)
• Anti-spasmodic (Ginger, Lemon balm, Rosemary,
Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel, Caraway)
• Aromatherapy

11. Role of Volatile Oil
In most cases, the
biological function of the
terpenoids of essential
oils remains obscure –
it is thought that they
play an ecological role –
protection from
predators & attraction of
pollinators.

12. Source
Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are
generally associated with the presence of
specialized histological structures, often located on
or near the surface of the plant:
- Oil cells of Zingiberaceae
- Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae
- Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae
- Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae
(Compositeae)

13. Chemical composition
Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based on their
biosynthetic origin
i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate mevalonic
acid pathway)
ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic acid-
phenylpropanoid route)
iii. Miscellaneous Origin

14. Classification
Hydrocarbon (C-H)
1. Turpentine: alpha and beta pinene
Alcohol (-OH)
1. Peppermint: Menthol
2. Cardamom: alpha-terpineol, Borneol
3. Rose: Nerol

15. Classification
Aldehyde (-CHO)
1. Lemon peel: Citral
2. Orange peel: Citral
3. Lemongrass: Citral (Highest)
Ketone (C=O)
1. Camphor: Camphor
2. Spearmint: Carvone

16. Classification
Ester (C=O-O)
1. Oil of wintergreen: Methyl salicylate
Ether (=O)
1. Eucalyptus oil: Cineole
Misc.
1. Sandalwood: alpha-beta santalol (sesqui)
2. Saussurea: Costulactone
3. Star anise: Anethole
4. Jatamansi: Jatamansone
5. Valerian: Valepotriates
6. Vetiver: Vetivone, Vetiverol

17. Classification
Phenyl propanoids: (C6H5-C3H7)
1. Cinnamon: Cinnamic aldehyde
2. Cassia cinnamon: Cinnamic aldehyde
3. Clove: Eugenol
4. Nutmeg: Myristicin, Elemicin, Saffrole

18. Umbelliferae
• Most members are herbs with furrowed stems and
hollow internodes
• Leaves are large and have a sheathing base and much
divided lamina
• Flowers are small and arranged in simple or compound
umbels.
• 5 lobed calyx, 5 petals, 5 stamens, an inferior 2 celled
ovary
• Fruit is cremocarp, frequently crowned with a stigma
bearing disc known as stylopodium

20. • When ripe, two mericarp separate from one another but
frequently remain attached to the simple of forked
carpophore which lies between them.
• The line separating the two mericarp is known as the
commissure.
• Each mericarps contains single seed which consists of
a large endosperm, which has a small embryo
embedded in it near the apex
• 5 primary ridges containing fibro vascular bundle run
from base to apex in the pericarp, and secondary ridges
sometimes alternate with these

21. • Between the ridges are schizogenous oleoresin canals
known as Vittae
• Members of the family, differ in the tnumber and
arrangement of the vittae in each mericarp, but 6 in
common, 4 on dorsal and 2 on commissural

23. 1. Anise
• Source: dried, ripe fruits of Pimpinella anisum
• Family: Umbelliferae
• Distribution: Levant (native) but cultivated in
both in Europe (Spain, Germany, Italy, Russia,
Bulgaria), Egypt and America (Chile, Mexico).
• Spain and Egypt are the principal producers of the oil.
• Constituents: Anethol, Anethal, Methyl chavicol, 2-3% of
volatile oil which is almost identical with that obtained
from star anise fruits.
• Water soluble glucosides p-hydroxy benzoic acid
• Use: anethole (spasmolytic)- stimulates respiratory
secretions and expectoration, dentifrice

24. Anise Oil
BP/EP tests and standards for the oil include:
TLC identification of anethole and anisaldehyde;
maximum limit of 0.1% for fenchone and 0.01% for
foeniculin; trans anethole 87-94%; estragole 0.5-5%,
anisaldehyde 1-1.4% and linalool <1.5%

25. History of Caraway
• Caraway seeds have been used since the beginning of
time. It was once used to protect children from witches
and is thought to inhibit fickleness. They are a staple of
German cooking and used by many like an after-dinner
mint.
• The origins of the name caraway come from the Arabic
al-karwiya seeds; which some presume is the origin of
the Latin word carvi and from Caria (Turkey), where
caraway may have first been used.

26. 2. Caraway
• Source: dried ripe fruits of Carum carvi
• Family: Umbelliferae
• Distribution: Europe (The Netherlands, Denmark,
Germany, Russia, Finland, Poland, Hungary and Britain)
and in Egypt, Morocco, Australia and China.
• Constituents: 3-7% Volatile oil (BP-NLT 3%)- Carvone,
Limonene, Dihydro carvone, traces of carvacol, 8-20% of
fixed oil, proteins, Cal oxalate, coloring matter, resin
• Use: culinary purpose, flavoring agent – bread, biscuits,
cheese and cake, carminative, antispasmodic

27. Caraway Oil
• The volatile oil (caraway oil BP/EP) consists largely of
the ketone carvone and the terpene limonene with small
quantities of dihydrocarvone, carveol and
dihydrocarveol.
• As there is a demand for pure carvone, there is a
considerable amount of decarbonized oil available for
adulteration.
• The proportions of individual components are required to
fall within certain limits as determined by GC: Limonene
(30-45%), Carvone (50-65%), beta myrcene (0.1-1%)
with max. limits of trans dihydrocarvone and trans
carveol both 2.5%

29. History of Dill
• Dill is native to Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean,
southern Russia, and western Africa (GMF).
• The name dill is thought to have originated from a Norse
or Anglo-Saxon word 'dylle' meaning to soothe or lull, the
plant having the carminative property of relieving gas.
• In some English-speaking countries, dill is sometimes
called dillby. In some Asian local languages it is called as
"shepu" or "sowa

30. 3. Dill
• Source: dried ripe fruits of Anethum graveolens
(Europe), Anethum sowa (India) NLT 2% of Volatile oil
• Family: Umbelliferae
• Distribution: native (Mediterranean region, southern
Russia, Italy, Spain and Portugal
• Cultivation:
- Sowing method (Fruit)
- Soil: Sandy loam soil devoid of graves, with slightly acidic
nature
- Weather: Cold
- Sowing period: October
- Harvesting: March/April

31. Collection:
umbels collected after full maturity,
- Dried thoroughly and shaken to separate the fruits.
- Fruits are sieved, excess of foreign organic matter is
removed and then packed in the bags.
Morphology:
• Color: Yellowish or pale brown with narrow wings
• Odor: Aromatic and characteristic
• Fruits are found in the form of mericarps usually
separated and free from pedicel.

32. • Constituents:
• 2.4 to 4% volatile oil, 20% fixed oil and protein
• volatile oil is an aromatic liquid consisting of a mixture of
paraffin HC and 40-60% of d-carvone along with d-
limonene and other terpene.
• USE: stimulant, aromatic, carminative and stomachic
Flatulence of infant, vehicle for children’s medicine,
perfuming soaps

34. 4. Ajowan
• Source: dried ripe seeds of Trachyspermum ammi
• Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
• Distribution: Egypt (native), grown through out India,
south-west Asian countries like Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan
and Pakistan.
• Constituents: volatile oil (2-3.5%), 17.1% protein, 21.8%
fat.
Ajwon Oil- colorless or brownish yellow liquid possessing a
characteristic odor of thymol and a sharp taste.
-principal constituents of oils are mainly phenol, mainly
thymol (35-60%), carvacol, para-cymene, gamma-
terpinene,alpha & beta pinene and dipentene.
-fatty oil is composed of palmitic, petroselinic, oleic, linoleic
and 5,6-octa-decanoic acid.

35. Use:
• Widely used as spice in curries, pickles, certain types of
biscuits, confectionaries and in beverages.
• It is given in flatulence, atonic dyspepsia, diarrhea and
cholera.
• Oil is used an antiseptic, aromatic, disinfectant soaps
and as an insecticide.

36. History of Fennel
• Fennel was well known to the Ancients and was
cultivated by the ancient Romans for its aromatic fruits
and succulent, edible shoots. Pliny had much faith in its
medicinal properties, according no less than twenty-two
remedies to it, observing also that serpents eat it when
they cast their old skins, and they sharpen their sight
with the juice by rubbing against the plant.
• The role of fennel in religious manifestations is
assimilated to a meaning of rebirth and spirit
regeneration.

37. 5. Bitter Fennel
• Source: dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare subsp.
Vulgare, var. vulgare, NLT 0.6% of anethole
• Family: Umbelliferae
• Distribution: Europe (Russia, Romania, Germany,
France), India, Japan. India: GJ, PB, MH, RJ, UP, WB
- The commercial drug consists partly of whole cremocarp
and partly of isolated mericarps.
• Constituents: 3-7% Volatile oil, 20% Protein, Fixed oil,
chief constituent is ketone (Fenchone 20%), Phenolic
ether (anethole 50%), phellandrene, limonene, methyl
chavicol, anisic aldehyde
• Use: aromatic, carminative, stimulant, flavoring agent
and as expectorant

38. Sweet fennel
- Source: derived from F.vulgare subsp. Vulgare; var.
dulce Included in BP/EP
- Fruits resemble those of the bitter variety but have a
sweet taste and lower volatile oil content (NLT 2%).
- NLT 80% of the oil is required to be anethole, NMT 7.5%
fenchone, and NMT 10% estragole.
- Morphology: Color: Green to Yellowish brown, Odor:
Sweet, aromatic, Taste: Strongly aromatic

40. Cultivation
• Method: Dibbling (making small holes in the ground for
seeds or plants)
• Sowing period (best quality): Before spring (Jan-Feb)
• Plenty of spaces between two rows and two plants
• 4-5 seeds, distance: 25 cm in between
• Soil: well drained, calcareous
• Weather: sunny
• Fertilizer: suitable, bear flowers in 2nd yr
• India: 90% production from Gujarat
• Collection: when ripe, harvesting done, SUN drying and
separated by thrashing

43. Constituents & Uses
Adulterants:
1. The fruits from which volatile oil
is removed by treating with
alcohol, contain less % of volatile
oil and have a typical odour of
fusel oil. Such fruits don't contain
fenchone.
2. If the fruits are exhausted by
the application of steam, they look
dark greenish-brown in colour and
contain only traces of volatile oil
and sink in water.

45. 6. Coriander
• Syn: Dhania, Cilatro, Chinese parsley
• Source: dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum
• Family: Umbelliferae
• Distribution: Europe, Africa, India (MH,UP, RJ, JK)
• Cultivation:
• kharif (rabi) crop
• Soil: heavy black
• Light: sufficient
• Qty: 15-20 kg fruit per hectre
• Sowing: Drilling method, rotation with wheat, grain, jowar
and onion and grown along with cotton, sugarcane,
brinjal as mixed crop
• Harvesting: after 100 days of growth (Rajasthan is
highest with 70% production in India)

47. • Storage: thoroughly dried and stored in well closed
containers as they are highly prone to insects.
• Morphology:
• Color: Yellowish brown to brown
• Odor: Aromatic
• Taste: Spicy and Characteristic
• Substitutes: Bombay coriander- ellipsoidal in shape and
having lesser volatile oil

50. • Constituents: 1% of volatile oil, chief components are D-
linalool (coriandrol), coriandryl acetate along with other
constituents like borneol, para cymene, camphor,
geraniol, limonene, alpha pinene.
• Leaves rich in Vitamin A
• Trans-tridec-2-enale is responsible for smell
• fatty oil and hydroxycoumarins
• fatty oil-petrosolic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid
• Hydroxycoumarins: umbelliferone, scopoletine, geranyl
acetate, deranal,

51. • Use: aromatic, carminative, stimulant, anti-spasmodic,
diaphoretic and flavoring agent, refrigerant, tonic,
appetizer, aphrodisiac
• applied externally in rheumatism and painful joints
• Ingredient of compound spirit of orange and cascara
elixir

53. 7. Cumin
• Syn: Jeera
• Source: dried ripe fruits of Cuminum cyminum
• Family: Umbeliferae
• GS: Indigenous to Nile territory, Morocco, Syria, China,
Sicily, India – all states except AS, WB (most GJ, RJ)
• Constituents: Volatile oil, Fixed oil, Protein
• Main – cuminaldehyde, small quantities of pinene,
phellandrene, cuminic alcohol, hydro cuminin
• Use: Stimulant, Carminative, Dyspepsia and Diarrhoea

54. History of Cumin
• Originally from Iran
• The history of cumin goes back over 5000 years. The
ancient Egyptians used it as a spice in foods as well as
in the mummification process. The Greeks and Romans
used cumin as a spice and also applied it for medicinal
purposes. Interestingly, it was used to make the
complexion more pale

56. 8. Hydrocarbon Volatile Oil:
Turpentine Oil
• Source: Volatile oil obtained by distillation from oleoresin
of Pinus roxburghi, Pinus longifolia, Pinus palustris
and other species of Pinus
• Family: Pinaceae
• GS: India, US, France, Russia
• Constituent: 40% terpene, mainly alpha terpene, beta
terpene, camphene, beta phellandrene, delta-3-carene,
limonene etc.
• Use: Counter irritant, rubefacient, weak antiseptic,
expectorant, chronic bronchitis,
• Industry: mfg. of pine oil, disinfectant, denaturants,
insecticides, paints and varnish.

57. Extraction method
• In the first method, suitable no. of blazes are made while
in second method heavy tapping (tapping to death) is
done and resin is collected. In several cases, it is
continued for 8-10 years. The tapping produces
schizogenous ducts. The oleo resin which comes out of
the plant is collected in earthenware or in suitable
containers. The crude oleo resin is purified by heating in
a steam jacketed vessel with spiral mixer. Vegetable
debris and materials like sand and other particles are
removed by settling or floating. The clarified resin is then
taken to the distillation plant.

58. Extraction method
• The oil is redistilled after treatment with NaOH or lime
water to remove resins, acids, phenols etc. It is then
dehydrated with common salt or sodium sulphate and
stored in suitable containers. The oleo-resin produces
appro. 25% of turpentine oil and 70% of colophony. The
turpentine oil produced after chemical treatment by alkali
is known as rectified turpentine oil. About 70% of world
production is from US.

59. ALCOHOL VOL OIL DRUGS

61. 9. Peppermint Oil
• Syn: brandy mint
• Source: oil obtained from dried leaves by
distillation of Mentha piperita (Hybrid of
M.spicata + M.aquatica)
• Distribution: Europe, US, Damp places of UK,
India: JK and Tarai - UP
• 2 Varieties: M. piperita var. vulgaris Sole
(black)
M. Piperita var. officinalis Sole (White)
• Constituent: 4.5-10% Menthyl acetate, NLT
44% Menthol, 15-32% Menthone, 1-5%
limonene, 3.5-14% limonene, 3.5-14%
Cineole, 14-32% Carvone

62. • Menthol concentration: Japan 85%, UK 60-70%, USA
50%
• Use: in sickness & nausea, respiration, hysteria & CNS
disorders, mid antiseptic
• (medicinal Value is due to : alcohol)

63. 10. CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
Syn: Ilaychi
Source: dried, nearly dried ripe
fruits of Elettaria cardamomum
Var. miniscula
Family: Zingiberaceae
PARTS USED: Seeds (should
be kept in the fruit until ready to
be used – Prevents loss of
volatile oils).
(one of the most expensive
spice).

64. Elettaria cardamomum
• GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Sri Lanka
• Southern India-Alleppy
• Guatemala
• HISTORY
• Traditional Indian ceremonies
• MULCHING: a protective covering
(as of sawdust, compost, or paper)
spread or left on the ground to
reduce evaporation, maintain even
soil temperature, prevent erosion,
control weeds, enrich the soil, or
keep fruit clean

66. CULTIVATION
• Soil: full of moisture, well drained
• Mulching is done: layer of material applied to conserve
moisture
• Rainfall: 150-600 cm, Altitude: 600-1600 m
• Temp: 10 to 38 degree C
• Sowing : Broadcasting method, Period: August-October
• Germination time: 7-8 week, poor, Maturity: 3rd year of
germination
• Collection: before fruits gets matured
• Drying: Sun and artificial, Sun: bleaching due to temp.
• Artificial: colour will be intact
• Bleaching: SO2 to improve colour
• Cardamom act 1965 to improve cultivation

67. COLLECTION & PREPARATION
• Fruits are dried slowly
(outdoors or indoors).
• Too rapid drying – capsules
split & shed seeds
• Calyx at the apex of the stalk
and the stalk at the base may
be removed.
• Fruits are graded with a sift
into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’,
‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.
• If they have been sulphur –
bleached (improved colour),
it will be aired outdoors
before packed for transport.

68. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
• Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing from
the rhizome.
• Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
• Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.
• Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.
• Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains x2
row of seeds.
• Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.
• Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) paler in unripe
seeds.
• Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
• Pungent taste

69. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
• Oil cells
• Predominant Parenchyma (yellow colour)
• Cells containing silica
• Epidermal cells
• Perisperm (starch grains)

73. VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
• ADULTERATION
• Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp
(powdered).
• ALLIED HERBS
• Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula
• Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated &
sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)
• Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)
• Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)
• Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)

74. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
• 2-8 % volatile oil (BP-NLT 4%)
• Abundant starch (up to 50%)
• Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
• Protein
• Calcium oxalate
• OIL
• Terpinyl acetate, Terpineol, Borneol
• Active: Cineole
• Monoterpenes (alcohol+ ester)

75. ACTIONS & USES
• Flavouring agent (curries &
biscuits)
• Liqueur manufacture
• Small amount is used for
pharmaceutical manufacture
(Compound Tincture of
Cardamom).
• Aromatic, Carminative

76. 11. Rose
• Syn: Rosae, Gulab
• Source: flowers of Rosa damascena,
R. gallica, R.alba, R. centifolia
• Family: Rosaceae
• Distribution: Bulgaria, Turkey, Morocco
• Constituent: 15-20% satd aliphatic
hydrocarbons (C14-C27), geraniol,
citronellol, nerol, 2-phenylethanol
• Use: perfume industry

77. ALDEHYDE VOL OIL DRUGS

78. 12. Lemon peel Oil
• Syn: Cortex limonis, Limonine, Citrus
medica, Nimboo
• Source: oil obtained from fresh or
dried outer part of pericarp of ripe or
incompletely ripe fruits of Citrus
limonis
• Family: Rutaceae
• Distribution: indigenous to Northern
India & wildly cultivated in
Mediterranean countries like Spain,
Portugal & Florida, California,
Australia, Jamaica, Italy

79. • Constituent:
• Peel contains: Hesperidin, Pectin
• Volatile oil: 90% Limonene, 4% Citral, Geranyl acetate,
Terpineol
• Chemical Test: solution of recently expressed oil is added
to 3 volumes of alcohol, its neutral or only slightly acidic
to litmus paper.
• Use:
• Externally: Rubefacient
• Internally: Stimulating & Carminative properties
• Extraction of Pectin and Volatile oil

80. 13. Orange-peel Oil
• Syn: Citrus vulgaris, Citrus aurantium, Bitter
Orange, Bigarade Orange
• Source: oil obtained from fresh or dried part
of pericarp of the Citrus aurantium
• Family: Rutaceae
• Distribution: India, China, Spain, Madeira,
Sicily, Malta, Morocco
• Constituent:
• Peel: Hesperidin, Iso-Hesperidin, Neo-
Hesperidin, Vitamin C, Pectin
• Bitter substances: Aurantiamarin &
Aurantimaric acid
• Vol oil: 90% Limonene, Citral, Citronellal

81. • Chemical Test: solution of recently expressed oil in
dehydrated alcohol is neutral to moistened litmus
paper.
• Use:
• Stomachic, Aromatic, Carminative
• Flavouring agent, used in oil of Turpentine in chronic
bronchitis, non-irritant to kidneys and pleasant to
take.
• Terpeneless orange oil is preferred commercially as
a flavouring agent because of stronger flavour,
readily solubility in natural oil

82. 14. Lemon grass
• Syn: East Indian & west Indian lemongrass
• Common Name: Gouticha, Lilicha
• Source: fresh leaves of Cymbopogon citratus &
C. flexuosus
• Family: Graminae
• Distribution: Indigenous to India, cultivated in Africa and
Guatemala. India: KL, TN, KA, MH, PB)
• Constituents: chiefly Citral, nerol, citronellal, geraniol,
new terpenoid: cymbopogone, cymbopogonol
• Use: perfumery & cosmetic industry, mosquito repellant,
India is principle producer of lemongrass oil for citral
content. Source of Citral, from which beta ionine is
prepared, to synthesize Vitamin A (Alleppey-Vit A plant)

83. KETONE VOL OIL DRUGS

85. 15. Spearmint Oil
• Syn: Pudina, Mint
• Source: dried leaf and flowering tops of Mentha
spicata (M. viridis) and Mentha cardiaca
• Family: Labiatae
• Distribution: Mediterranean region, America &
Asia
BP Oil prepared by steam distillation
• Constituent: NLT 55% Carvone, 2-25% Limonene,
phellandrene, esters
• Use: Carminative, flavoring agent-tooth paste,
mouth wash, chewing gum, saucesm, Cosmetic

87. 16. Camphor Oil
• Source: oil obtained from the wood by steam distillation
of Cinnamomum camphora
• Family: Lauraceae
• GS: Eastern Asia, Taiwan, Japan, China
• Method of preparation:
• The wood is reduced to small pieces of chips and
subjected to steam distillation.
• Distillation is performed at 80-100 psi
• Crude oil this obtained is purified by sublimation
• Yield: 1kg of crude camphor is obtained from 40-50 kg
chips of crude drug.

88. • Constituents: Safrole, Anisaldehyde, Dipentene,
camphor eugenol, d-pinene, eucalyptol, phellandrene
and cineole
• isolated from camphor oil by chilling or synthesizing from
pinene.
• colourless, crystalline solid granular mass known as
flower of camphor.
• penetrating characteristic odour and aromatic pungent
taste, followed by sensation of cold, slowly vaporizes at
RT
• Natural is dextro rotatory, synthetic: raceme

89. • Chemical Test: Powdered natural camphor + 1:100
( Vanillin + Sulphuric acid) – yellow colour, changing to
red, violet and finally blue.
• synthetic camphor didn't give this test.
• Use: rubefacient, counter irritant, flavouring agent in
soap and tooth powder and cosmetic preparation.
• Storage: well closed container away from light and cool
conditions

90. ESTER VOL OIL DRUG

91. 17. Winter green Oil
• Syn: Gaultheria oil, Sweet birch oil
• Source: Oil obtained from steam
distillation from the leaves of Gaultheria
procumbens
• Family: Ericaceae
• Distribution: North america, USA,
Canada,
• India (Khasi hills, western ghats, Nilgiri)
• Constituents: 1.5% of essential oil,
• 98% Methyl salicylate- formed by
hydrolysis of glycoside in Gaultherin in
presence of water by naturally occuring
enzyme gaultherase.

92. • Enanthic alcohol and its ester show characteristic odor
due to which natural gaultheria oil can be distinguished
from synthetic methyl salicylate.
• Chemical test:
• oil + 5% solution of vanillin in 90% alcohol + alcohol –
blood red colour produced
• Another source of gaultheria oil is optically inactive
while natural is slightly levo rotatory.
• Uses: Rheumatism, Counter irritant, effective wormicide-
hook worm, flavouring agent,

93. ETHER VOL OIL DRUG

95. 18.Eucalyptus Oil
• Syn: Nilgiri
• Source: eucalyptus leaf of the EP and BP consists of
whole or cut dried leaves of the older branches of
Eucalyptus globulus
• Family: Myrtaceae
• Eucalyptus trees possess 2 kinds of leaves, Those on
young plants being cordate and sessile
• Whereas those on mature trees which constitute the
official drug are petiole and scimitar shaped.
• The dried leaves are greyish-brown in color, coriaceous
(leather) in texture and have lateral veins which
anastomose (link) near the margin.

96. • Secretory oil glands are visible in leaves held to the light.
• Microscopy shows epidermal cells with thick cuticle,
anomocytic stomata, together with mesophyll having
schizogenous oil glands and prisms and cluster crystals
of Calcium oxalate
• The leaves are required to contain NLT 2% v/w of
essential oil
• have limits of 3% for dark and brown leaves
• 5% stems and 2% for other foreign matter
• Significant components of the leaves are phloroglucinol-
sesquiterpene coupled compounds name macrocarpals,
which show antibacterial activity against oral pathogenic
m/s and inhibition of glycosyltransferase activity.
• Such substances could have potential in the
maintenance of oral hygiene.

97. • Only a certain number of species produce oils suitable
for medicinal use, as the chief requirements are a high
content of Cineole and absence of appreciable quantities
of Phellandrene and aldehyde.
• Suitable oil are derived from E.polybractea, E. smithii,
E. globulus and E. australiana.
• In case of the latter species the oil used in pharmacy is
that collected during the 1st hour of the distillation.
• Citron scented eucalyptus oil which is derived from
E. citriodora, is used in perfumery and contains a high
proportion of the aldehyde citronellal.

98. Volatile Oil distillation

99. Extraction of Oil
• The trees of 16 yrs. of age are preferred for the
collection of leaves
• About 750-1200 kg of leaves are collected per hectare.
• The leaves are dried in shade for about 3 days and
subjected to steam distillation.
• Unit is made up of bottom of false perforated copper.
• Sufficient water is placed and steam under pressure is
passed through it.
• 6 hours for complete distillation
• rectified with NaOH

100. • Characters:
• colorless or pale yellow liquid.
• aromatic and camphoraceous odor, pungent taste which
is followed by a sensation of cold.
• Constituents: NLT 70% of cineole, pinene, camphene
• 1,8-cineole and o-cresol form a solid complex and the
crystallizing temperature of this forms the official assay
of the oil.
• Industrial eucalyptus oil doesn’t contain citronellal.
• Chemical test: oil + petroleum benzin + NaNO2 + GAA –
no immediate crystal formation in 10 min.

101. • Use:
• alleviating symptoms of nasopharyngeal infections
• for treating coughs and as a decongestant
• taken internally in the form of mixture, inhalations,
lozenges and pastilles
• applied externally as ointment and liniments counter
irritant and antiseptic.

102. Misc. category

103. 19. Sandal Wood
(sesquiterpene)
• Syn: Chandan
• Source: heartwood of Santalum album
• Family: Santalaceae
• Distribution: India (KA), Malaysia
• Constituents: 95% isomeric sesqui terpene alcohol,
alpha & beta-Santalol, Santene, Santenone,
Teresantol, Santalone, Santalene
• oil is present in elements of wood & not present in or
secreted by any special types of cells or glands.
• Use: Symptomatic treatment of dysurea, dimishing
frequency of micturination in TB of bladder. Perfumery
industry, Incense stick & cosmetic

105. 20. Saussurea (sesquiterpene)
.
• Syn: Costus, Kuth
• Source: dried roots of Saussurea lappa
• Family: Compositae
• Distribution: Himalaya, JK, UP (2500-3000 m altitude)
• Constituents: 6% resinoids, 1.5% essential oil, 18%
inulin, 0.5% alkaloid, fixed oil, traces of Tannin and
sugar
• Volatile oil: costulactone, dihydrolactone, camphene,
sesquiterpene, alcohol, Alkaloid: Saussurine, Kusthin:
Isolated

106. • Use: bronchial Asthma, Expectorant, as an essence,
powerful insecticide, antiseptic, disinfectant against
Streptococcus & Staphylococcus
• India is exporting to Japan, France, Hong Kong
• Being v costly, being adulterated with Vetiver oil
• Carminative, Stimulant, Skin disease, rheumatism
Camphene

107. 21. Star anise
• Source: dried fruits of Illicium verum
• Family: Illiciaceae
• Distribution: China, Vietnam
• Specification: consists of 8 (rarely 7 or 9) one seeded
follicles
• Constituents: 7% volatile oil, NLT 86% anethole,
• Anisaldehyde (0.1-0.5%), Foeniculin (0.1-3%), chavicol
methyl ether (isomer anethol), p-
methoxyphenylacetone, Safrole, 0.5-5% estragol

108. • Use:
• oil (seed-pericarp) gives odor
• as starting material to synthesize Tamiflu (roche) (from
shikimic acid)
• flavoring agent
• carminative
• anethol production

110. 22. Jatamansi
• Syn: Indian Valerian. Valerian Jatamansi, Tagara
• Source: dried rhizomes, stolons and roots of
Valeriana wallichi (Indian)
• Valeriana officinalis (European)-Valerianol
• Family: Valerianaceae
• Distribution: India (Himalayas, Kashmir, Garhwal),
Afghanistan and Pakistan
• Constituents: pale brown to amber colored oil about
1%, Alkaloid chatanene & valerine, borneol formate,
borneol acetate, camphene, borneol, isovalerianate,
sesqui-terpene,
• 2% Valepotriates (valtrate-therapeutic action)
• It is more in Indian variety compared to European
variety

111. • Use: antispasmodic, depressant action on CNS,
• stimulant, carminative, tonic, tincture-extract-infusion,
medicinal tea
• flavoring of tobacco & beer
• Valepotriates tranquillizing property
• Valeric acid: CH3(CH2)3COOH

113. 22 A. Jatamansi
• Syn: Indian spike nard
• Source: dried rhizomes of Nardostachys jatamansi
• Family: Valerianaceae
• GS: Himalaya, Altitude: 3000-5000m (PB, Sikkim,
Bhutan)
• Constituents: 1-2% volatile oil, resin, sugar, starch, bitter
principle. Isovaleric ester, jatamansic acid, jatamansone,
nardostachone
• CT: 80% alc ext shows bluish white fluorescence under
UV
• Use: Sedative, anti-spasmodic, diuretic, stomachic,
epilepsy, hysteria, Oil: anti-arrythmic, hair tonic

114. 23. Valerian
• Syn: English valerian, Vandal root
• Source: dried roots, rhizomes and stolons of Valeriana
officinalis collected in autumn, temp. below 40 degree
• Family: Valerianaceae
• Distribution: Netherland, Belgium, France, Germnay,
Eastern Europe and Japan.
• Constituents: 0.5-1% volatile oil, Borneol, bornyl
isovalerate, bornyl acetate, bornyl formate, Eugenyl
isovalerate, isoeugenyl isovalerate, alcohols, eugenol,
terpene and sesqui terpene (valerenal), Valepotriates
0.5%
• Use: insomnia, hysteria, BP, convulsion, sedative, anti-
tumour, nervine tonic, anti spasmodic, promote
menstruation when taken hot

116. 24. Vetiver
• Syn: Khus oil
• Source: oil obtained by steam distillation from roots
• of Vetiveria zizaniodes
• Family: Graminae
• Distribution: India (PB, RJ, UP, KL, KA, TN), Myanmar,
Srilanka, Africa, Indonesia, Caribbean island, Malaysia,
Philippines, USA
• Constituents: mainly alcohol 45-60%- 1 Vetivenol,
vetiverol, 8-35% ketone-2 alpha & 3 beta vetivones
• Indian: khusal, khusitol, khusinol
• Use: Stimulant, refrigerant, flavoring agent, aromatic,
• stomachic, prickly heat or itches, sharbat preparation,
soap, perfumery & toilet preparation

118. Phenyl propanoids category

119. 25. Cinnamon
• Syn: Dalchini, Ceylon Cinnamon
• Source: dried inner bark of coppiced trees of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, C. verum
• Family: Lauraceae
• GS: Indigenous to Sri Lanka, Malabar coast of India,
Jamaica, Brazil, Principal producer- Ceylon

120. Cultivation
• Propagation: seed
• Soil: sandy or siliconus with humus
• Altitude: 800-1000m
• Shed, Rain: 200-250 cm
• First nursery beds, Season: June-July
• Germination: 20 days
• Allow to grow- 10-12 months
• Transplant: Oct-Nov (shed of coconut)
• Ammonium sulphate and super sulphate in first yr

121. Cultivation
• Coppiced to induce formation of shoots, and till it attains
brown cork
• Harvesting: rainy season, easy to peel off, longitudinal
incision made
• Longitudinal incisions are made on the shoots and
transverse markings are also given to form rings at the
nodes, which connects longitudinal incision producing
strips
• Strips peeled, coir matting and allow to ferment for 24
hrs, cork-cortex will get removed
• Drying : strips becomes quill (small ones inserted to
larger ones)
• Quilling and feathering

122. Morphology
• Color: Outer: Dull yellowish brown
Inner: dark yellowish brown
• Odor: Fragrant
• Shape: compound quill
• Taste: warm sensation
• Fracture: splintery
• Outer surface of bark is marked by wavy
longitudinal striations with small holes of scars left
by the branches. The inner surfaces also shows
the longitudinal striations.
• Bark is free of cork and cortex.

123. • Microscopy:
• Cork, Cortex- ABSENT
• Sclerenchymatous Pericycle Fiber
• Phloem
• Phloem fibers
• Biseriate medullary rays
• Secretory cavity: volatile oil and mucilage
• Starch grain: cortical parenchyma and medullary rays
• Calcium oxalate: parenchymatous cells
• Chemical Test: On addidtion of FeCl3, oil produces pale
green colour. Cinnamic aldehyde-brown, Eugenol: blue,
resulting in Pale Green
• Cassia oil produces brown color because it only contains
cinnamic aldehyde

125. • Constituents:
• 0.5-1% volatile oil, 1.2% tannin (phlobatannins)
• Mucilage, Cal oxalate, Starch
• Sweet substance mannitol
• Volatile oil: 60-70% cinnamic aldehye, phellandrene,
pinene, 5-10% eugenol, caryophyllene,

126. Use & Substitutes - Adulterants
• Uses:
• Carminative, Stomachic, Mild astringent, Aromatic,
Antiseptic, Spice-condiment
• Preparation of candy, dentifrice and perfumes
• Substitutes:
• 1. Jungle cinnamon
• 2. Cinnamon chips
• 3. Saigon Cinnamon
• 4. Java Cinnamon

127. 26. Cassia cinnamon
• Syn: Chinese cinnamon, Cassia cinnamon
• Source: dried stem bark of Cinnamonum cassia
• Family: Lauraceae
• GS: Indigenous to China, cultivated in Sri lanka,
Myanmar
• Constituents: 1-2% volatile oil: cassia oil, mucilage,
starch, calcium oxalate and tannins. Cinnamic aldehyde
85%, small amount of eugenol, cinnamyl acetate
• Cassia bark contains coumarin not found in Cinnamon
• Use: carminative, stimulant, flavouring agent, condiment

129. 27. Clove
• Syn: Caryophyllum, Lavang
• Source: dried flower buds of Syzygium
aromaticum (Eugenia caryophyllus), NLT 7%
Eugenol
• Family: Myrtaceae
• GS: Indigenous to Molucca or Clove Islands,
cultivated in Zanzibar, Pemba, Madagascar,
Caribbean island Sri lanka, India
• India: Nilgiri, Tenkasi Hills, Kanyakumari Dist (TN),
Kottayam, Quilon (KL)

130. Cultivation
• Soil: deep rich loamy with high humus, sandy loam with
laterite
• Water logging to be avoided
• Climate: warm and humid, Grows well – vicinity of sea
• Altitude: sea level to 900 m
• Rainfall- 150-200 cm
• Propagation: seedling
• Sowing Period: August to October
• First in nursery beds
• Germination period: 5 weeks

131. Cultivation
• Transplant: after 6 months to pots and allowed to grow
for a year
• Transfer: Field in shade
• Can be grown along with Areca nut, coconut, nutmeg
• Fertilizers: Ammonium sulphate, super phosphate and
potash (2 doses, first: May/June & second: October)
• Yield: normal production: 3 kg drug

132. Collection and Preparation
• Collection: After 7-8 years
• Picking: Hand picking or beating with bamboos
• The operation commences when the cloves start
changing their colour from green to slightly pink
• When is tree is tall and cloves are beyond reach,
platform ladders are used for collection.
• Drying: Sun drying preferred
• Colour change: after drying it becomes crimson to
brownish black in colour
• C

133. Morphology
• Colour: crimson to dark brown
• Odour: Aromatic
• Taste: Pungent and aromatic, followed by numbness
• Shape: Hypanthium is surrounded by 4 thick acute
divergent sepels surrounded by dome shaped corolla.

134. Microscopy
• Heavy cuticularized epidermis
• Anomocytic stomata in epidermis
• Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
• Phloem fibers
• Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals &
prisms)
• Lignified sclereids
• *does not contain starch grains,
Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)

137. • Constituents:
• 14-21% Volatile oils
• 10-13% tannin (gallotannic acid), resin, chromone,
eugenil
• Volatile oil: 70-90% Eugenol, Eugenol acetate,
Caryophyllene
• Small quantity of ester, ketone and alcohol
• Chemical Test: When TS of clove is treated with strong
KOH, needle shaped crystals of potassium eugenate
are observed
• Use:
• Dental analgesic, Carminative, Stimulant, Flavouring
agent, Aromatic, Antiseptic, preparation of Cigarettes,
Perfumery, Manufacturing of Vanillin

138. Adulterants:
1. Mother cloves: presence of starch grains (old)
2. Blown cloves: less volatile oil
3. Clove stalks: stone cells are detected, less oil
4. Exhausted clove: float on water, less oil

140. 28. Nutmeg
• Syn: Nux moschata, Myristica, Jaiphal
• Source: dried kernels of seeds of
• Myristica fragrans
• Family: Myristicaceae
• Distribution: Molucca islands(native), cultivated in
• Indonesia, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Penang, Ceylon,
West Indies, Ceylon, India (KL, TN)
• 75% demand from Indonesia, 15% Grenada
• Constituents: 5-15% Volatile Oil, 30-40% fat,
Phytosterin, Starch, Amylodextrin, Coloring matter,
Saponin

142. • Constituents: 5-16% volatile oil, 30% fat, protein, starch
• Volatile oil: 4-8% myristicin, elimicin and saffrole
• Fatty acid: 60% oil of myristic, oleic, palmitic, lauric acid
• Myristicin is v poisnous and the narcotic effect of the
drug is said to be due to myristicin. Nutmeg butter
contains trimyristin.
• Use: Nutmeg butter- Banda soap- Soap manufacturing
• Fat and volatile oil- Rheumatism treatment
• Infantile diarrhoea, flavouring agent