Volatile oils 1st lecture

VOLATILE OILS
by
Waqar Ahmad
by
Dr. Waqar Ahmad
Pharm-D (Gold Medalist)
M.Phil Pharmacy (QAU Islamabad) Pakistan.
Cell# 00923015820152

Definition
• The odorous, volatile principle of plant and
animal source are known as Volatile oils.
• As they evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary
temperature, they are also called as “ethereal oils.
• They represent essence or active constituents of
plant, hence they are also known as “essential
oils”.

• They differ entirely in both chemical and physical
properties from fixed oils.
1. Volatile oils can be distilled from their natural sources.
2. Volatile oils do not consist of glyceryl esters of fatty acids.
Hence, they do not leave a permanent grease spot on paper and
cannot be saponified with alkalies.
3. Volatile oils do not become rancid as do the fixed oils, but
instead, on exposure to light and air, they oxidize and resinify.

They are secreted in:
Oil cells e.g. Cinnamon
Oil glands e.g. Clove
Secretion ducts (vittae) e.g. Anise
Glandular hairs e. g. Chamomile
• They are frequently associated with other
substances such as gums (oleo gum) and resins
(oleoresin) or both (oleo gum resin)

Properties:
o They possess characteristic odours.
o Most of them are optically active.
o They are commonly found in the species of
Labiatae, Rutaceae, Piperaceae, Zingiberaceae,
Umbelliferae, Myrtaceae and Lauraceae.
o They are present in entire plant or in any part of the plant
o Their density is generally lower than that of water
o (the essential oils of clove and cinnamon are the exceptions).
• As a rule, volatile oils are immiscible with water, but they are
sufficiently soluble to impart their odor to water. The
aromatic waters are dependent on this slight solubility

Uses:
• Therapeutically (Oil of Eucalyptus)
• Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
• Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
• Starting materials to synthesize other
compounds (Oil of Turpentine)
• Anti-septic – due to high phenols (Oil of Thyme,
Clove). Also as a preservative (oils interfere with
bacterial respiration)
• Anti-spasmodic (Ginger, Lemon balm,
Rosemary, Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel,
Caraway)
• Aromatherapy

• For therapeutic purposes: they are
administered
• as inhalations (e.g. eucalyptus oil),
• orally (e.g. peppermint oil),
• as gargles and mouthwashes (e.g. thymol)
• and transdermally (many essential oils
including those of lavender, rosemary are
employed in the practice of aromatherapy).
There are about 100 commercially valuable
volatile oils directly derived from plants

Composition of volatile oils
• Volatile oils are generally mixtures of
hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds
derived from these hydrocarbons.
• The odour and taste of volatile oils is mainly
determined by these oxygenated constituents,
which are to some extent soluble in water but
more soluble in alcohol

Biosynthesis and chemical
composition
• Chemical constituents of volatile oils may be
divided into 2 broad classes, based on their
biosynthetic origin:
1. Terpene derivatives formed via the acetate-
mevalonic acid pathway.
2. Aromatic compounds formed via the shikimic
acid-phenylpropanoid route

TERPENES
Terpenes, or terpenoids, are the largest group of
secondary products (metabolites).
May occur as oxygenated derivatives, e.g.
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, oxides
& esters.

Terpenoid
• They are derived from terpenes and their
oxygenated compounds.
• They are made up of isoprene units (C5H8 )
and are usually mono, sesqui- and diterpenes .

Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C
atoms they contain
 10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) –
monoterpenes
 15-Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called
sesquiterpenes.
 20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.
 Larger terpenes (30 Carbons) are called triterpenes
 (triterpenoids),
 40 Carbons – called tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids

TYPE EXAMPLE
Alcohol Volatile Oils Peppermint, Cardamom,
Sandal wood, Coriander
Aldehyde Volatile Oils Cinnamon, Lemon,
Orange Peel, Almond Oil
Ester Volatile oils Rosemarry, Lavender
Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils Turpentine oil, Cubeb
CLASSIFICATION

Ketone Volatile Oils Caraway, Camphor,
Spearmint, Musk, Buchu
Oxide Volatile Oils Chenopodium oil,
Eucalyptus oil
Phenolic ether Volatile
Oils
Anise, Fennel, Myristica
Phenol Volatile Oils Clove, Thyme
Miscellaneous Allium, Anethum

Preparation (Extraction) of volatile
oils
1. Distillation in water or steam.
2. Scarification and expression.
3. Extraction with solvents.
4. Enzymatic hydrolysis (for glycosidic volatile oils
e.g. mustard oil).
5. Enfleurage (extraction of oils used in perfumery).

I- Distillation Methods:
Types of distillation used:
1-Water and steam distillation
2-Direct steam distillation
Hydro-distillation: - method comprising of
water distillation, water and steam-distillation,
and steam distillation . The fresh material is
subjected to hydro-distillation. Air-dried parts
are extracted by steam distillation

Points for consideration in the distillation method:
1- It is often necessary to subject the plant material to special
treatment prior to steam distillation e.g. cut or crushed.
Crushing or cutting facilitates penetration of water into
oil- containing structures in the plant.
eg. Oil cells, glandular hairs.
2- For removal of water or moisture which might be present in
the prepared volatile oil, anhydrous sodium sulfate is usually
used.

Some volatile oil can´t be distilled without
decomposition and are usually obtained by:
II- Expression method
Expression can be carried out by means of any of
the following three processes:
a) Sponge method:
- The citrus fruit (orange, lemon) is washed, cut into
halve and the juicy part removed.
- The rind is squeezed, when secretion glands rupture
and the oil collected by mean of the sponge, until the
sponge becomes saturated with water and oil.
- The sponge is then periodically squeezed in a vessel.
- The upper oily layer in the vessel is separated.

b) Scarification method:
- Citrus oil involve puncturing the oil glands by rolling the fruit over
a trough lined with sharp projection that are long enough to penetrate
the epidermis.
- By repeatedly rotating the instrument after placing lemons in the
bowel, the oil glands are punctured (scarified) and discharge their
contents.
- The liquid is poured off at interval into a large vessel, where it is
allowed to stand until the oil can be decanted and filtered.
c) Machine processes:
- These machine methods have now almost completely replaced the old
hand methods. A centrifuge may be used to separate the emulsion of
oil and water.

III- Extraction method
- This method is used for the preparation of those oils which
decompose by the action of steam or are present in extremely
small quantities in plant organs containing them.
- This is applied to flowers such as jasmine, gardenia, violet,
and few others.
- The method of extraction is carried out using:
a) Volatile solvents of low boiling point such as hexane.
b) Non-volatile solvents such as fat.

a)Extraction with volatile solvents
- The material containing the volatile oil is extracted
with the volatile solvent with low boiling point by
percolation.
- The volatile oil solution obtained is evaporated
under reduced pressure, where the volatile solvent
will evaporate, leaving the volatile oil behind although
some of the volatile oil will be lost.

Advantage of extraction over distillation:
- Uniform temperatures (usually 50°C) can be maintained during most
of the process.
But the distillation method is a low-cost operation compared to the
extraction process.

Floral concrete:
- In preparing volatile oil with volatile solvents e.g. hexane, petroleum
ether
the completely concentrated and purified products represent the so called
floral concretes.
- These floral concretes contain the odoriferous principles of the natural
flower perfume plus a considerable amount of plant waxes and color
pigments.
- The concretes are solid and only partly soluble in alcohol 95%.
Absolute:
- By ppt. and eliminating the insoluble waxes from the floral concretes
with strong alcohol and concentrating the filtered alcoholic solutions.
a- Extraction with volatile solvents:

B- Extraction with non-volatile solvents:
This process is used for the preparation of:
* Natural flower oils, where the volatile oil content of the fresh
plant is so small, very expensive, for production of perfumes.

1- Enfleurage method
- A thin coating of especially prepared and odourless fat (called a
chassis) is smeared on both surfaces of each of the glass plates which
are enclosed in a wooden frame.
- Each glass plate is sprinkled with flowers to cover its top.
- The plates are left for 24 hours.
- The flowers are then removed and replaced by a fresh supply.
- This is repeated until after some weeks, the fats becomes saturated
with essential oil of the flowers.

• Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as pomade, may be
treated with absolute alcohol which will take the volatile oil and leave
the fat being insoluble in alcohol.
•
- The alcoholic extract is carefully cooled and filtered to remove any
• traces of fat which might remain in solution.

Chemical test for Volatile Oils::
• To the thin section of the drug, add alcoholic
solution of Sudan III . Red colors obtained by
globules indicate the presence of volatile oil.
• To the thin section of the drug, add a drop of
tincture alkana . Red colour indicates the
presence of volatile oil.

Storage of Volatile Oils:
• Certain volatile oils are liable to deteriorate on
keeping. The deterioration is accompanied by
change in colour, or increase in viscosity of the
oil, or change in odour of the oil.
• Therefore, volatile oils should be preserved
properly in well closed, well filled containers
away from light and in cool place.

CUBEB
DEFINITION:
Cubeb is the dried, full-grown,
unripe fruit,of Piper cubeba Linn.
Family: Piperaceae.
Geographical Sources
Java, Penang, and other parts of
East Indies.

MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
A creeper or climbing perennial
plant, with a bunch of
dioeciously flowers in spikes.
Odour: characteristic- aromatic
odour
Taste: strongly aromatic and
pungent and somewhat bitter.
 Commercial cubebs consist of
the dried berries, round in shape
and looks like black pepper, but
with stalks attached
 The dried pericarp is wrinkled,
and its color ranges from grayish-
brown to black. The seed is hard,
white and oily

CONSTITUENTS
 Volatile oil (10 - 18 %)
 Resins
 Amorphous cubebic
acid
 Colourless crystalline
cubebin.
 By extraction with
ether, yields oleoresin
(22%).

USES OF CUBEB
• Stimulant,
• carminative,
• aphrodisiac
• much used as a remedy for gonorrhoea,
• also used in leucorrhoea,
• cystitis,
• urethritis,
• abscesses of the prostate gland,
• piles and chronic bronchitis.
• Cubeb was frequently used in the form of
cigarettes for asthma,
• chronic pharyngitis and hay fever

CUBEB OIL
About 15% of a volatile oil is obtained
by distilling cubebs with water
Monoterpenes:
• Sabinene 50%
• α-thujene
• Carene
Sesquiterpenes
• Caryophyllene
• Copaene
• α- and β-Cubebene
• δ-Cadinene
• Germacrene
Oxides 1,4- and 1,8-cineole
and the alcohol cubebol.

CUBEB OIL - USES
Cubeb essential oil is pungent, slightly camphorous,
• Has stimulant,
• expectorant,
• carminative,
• antiseptic,
• diuretic properties

Turpentine Oil
• Synonym: Spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, wood
turpentine.
• Biological Source: One of the earliest sources of
turpentine was the terebinth or turpentine tree (Pistacia
terebinthus),
• Turpentine oil is the oleoresin obtained from pinus
palustris.

Other Sources of Turpentine
• Important pines for turpentine production include:
• maritime pine (Pinus pinaster),
• Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis),
• Masson's pine (Pinus massoniana),
• Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii),
• longleaf pine (Pinus palustris),
• loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and
• ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).
• Preparation
Turpentine is usually collected from pines i.e., Pinus elliottii
and Pinus palustris, which grow in abundance in the Northern
Florida, Georgia,and North and South Carolina.

Chemical Composition
• Turpentine is composed of terpenes,
• mainly the monoterpenes alpha-
pinene and beta-pinene
• with lesser amounts
of carene, camphene, dipentene,
and terpinolene.

Uses
• 1. It is employed externally as a counterirritant.
• 2. It is also used as a rubefacient.
• 3. It is employed industrially as an insecticide.
• 4. It is used as a solvent for waxes.
• 5. It is utilized extensively in the production of
synthetic camphor.
• 6. It is used in making various types of polishes

PEPPERMINT
& PEPPERMINT OIL
DEFINITION:
Peppermint is the dried leaves of
Mentha piperita
Family: Labiatae).
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES:
Europe, America, Japan,
England, France, Italy, Bulgaria,
india and Pakistan

• All mints have a square stem
& creeping rhizome.
• Black mint, which is the
most commonly cultivated
variety in England, has purple
stems and dark green petiolate
leaves tinged with purple.
• Pinnate venation.
• Acuminate apex
• Small purple flowers appear
in late summer.

( Peppermint oil)
• Oil of peppermint is
obtained from Mentha
piperita via steam
distillation using the
flowering tops.
• Oil should contain at least
• 44 % menthol,
• 15-32 % menthone
• and 4.5-10 % menthyl
acetate.

Description
• Colour - Colourless to pale yellow.
• Odour - Characteristic and pleasant.
• Taste: Pungent followed by cooling sensation.
• Solubility: It is soluble in 70% alcohol, ether
and chloroform and insoluble in water

Preparation of Oil:
• The air-dried material is charged into galvanized
iron or mild-steel still. The still has a false
perforated bottom.
• The steam under pressure, generated with the help
of boiler, is then passed through the drug. It takes
about 3 to 4 hours for distillation.
• More than 80% of the oil is distilled off during the
first half of distillation.
• Distillation should be completed carefully, as
menthol is of medicinal and commercial importance
comes over in the latter part of distillation.

• The condenser should be made up of either
aluminium or stainless-steel and should be
coiled, so as to increase the area of
condensation.
• The distillate i.e. mentha oil is collected in
separating can. Mentha oil is insoluble in water
and also lighter than water, which keeps it
floating in a separating can.

Oleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS
• Menthol (about 80%)
• Menthone & isomenthone
• Menthyl acetate
• Jasmone
• Limonene
• Cineole
• Menthofuran
• Pulegone
• Cineole
• Camphene
OIL COMPOSITION: greatly
influenced by genetic
factors & seasonal variation.

PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT OIL
USES
• Carminative, stimulant, Flavouring agent.
• It has mild Antiseptic properties too.
• It is used in toothpaste, tooth powders, shaving creams, and
different pharmaceutical dosage forms.
• It is also consumed in the preparation of chewing gums,
candies, jellies, perfumes and essences.
• Mentha oil and menthol have calcium channel blocking
activity causing spasmolytic and smooth muscle relaxant
effects, and hence useful in irritable bowel syndrome.
• Mentha oil shows digestant activity by stimulating bile flow

Storage
• Peppermint oil should be stored in
well-filled and air-tight containers
protected from light and in cool
place.
• Peppermint oil darkens and
becomes viscous on storage.
• If cooled, separation of menthol
crystals occurs.
• Other species of Mentha such as M.
longifolia, M. roundifolia and M.
spicata (spearmint) also yield
volatile oils for flavouring purpose.

CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL
DEFINITION: Coriander is
the dried, nearly ripe fruit of
Coriandrum sativum
Family: Umbelliferae.
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Indigenous to Italy.
Also cultivated in Holland,
Central & Eastern Europe,
China, India, Pakistan &
Bangladesh.

• Annual herb growing 0.7 m
in height with white or pink
flowers.
Drug:
• Normally consists of whole
cremocarps – straw yellow
& 2-4 mm in diameter when
ripe.
• Each consists of 2
hemispherical mericarps
joined by their margins.
• Fruits have an aromatic
odour & spicy taste.
• Unripe plant: unpleasant
mousy odour  same
odour oil has when made
from unripe fruit.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1.8 % Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols & esters
• Flavonoids
• Coumarins
• Phenolic acids
• High fat content (16-28%)
• Protein (11-17%)

Coriandrum sativum - USES
• Domestic purposes
(cooking - curries)
• Pharmaceutically:
flavouring agent &
Carminative

CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
DEFINITION: Cardamom
consists of the dried, nearly dried
ripe fruits of Elettaria
cardamomum.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
PARTS USED: Seeds (should be
kept in the fruit until ready to be
used – Prevents loss of volatile
oils).
• (3RD most expensive spice).

Elettaria cardamomum
• GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
– Sri Lanka
– India
– Pakistan
• HISTORY
– Traditional Indian
ceremonies

• Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing from
the rhizome.
• Fruit is ovoid or oblong capsule, green to pale in colour
contains many seeds. 1-2 cm long.
• Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains x2
row of seeds.
• Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.
• Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds)  paler in
unripe seeds.
• Odour :Strong, pleasant, aromatic
• Taste: Pungent taste

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
• 2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil (terpinyl acetate and
cineole).
• Abundant starch (up to 50%)
• Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
• Calcium oxalate

Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES
• Flavouring agent (curries &
biscuits)
• Liqueur manufacture
• Small amount is used for
pharmaceutical manufacture
e.g., Compound Tincture of
Cardamom as Flavouring agent.
• Pharmacological activities:
Anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
antipyretic, gastroprotective

ROSEMARY & ROSEMARY OIL
DEFINITION:
• Rosemary consists of dried
Stems, leaves and flowers of
Rosmarinus officinalis (also
known as Rosmarinus
coronarium).
Family: Labiatae
• Most sources interpret the
Latin name as rosmarinus“dew
of the sea”.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES:
Native to the Mediterranean
regions, southern Europe,
South Africa, India and
Pakistan

Stem
• Rosemary is an evergreen,
shrubby herb that grows to a
height of 1 to 2 m.
• Erect stems are divided into
numerous long, slender
branches.
Leaves:
• The branches bear
opposite, leathery thick leaves
which are lustrous, linear, dark
green above and grey somewhat
wooly below.
Flower:
• The flowers are small and pale
blue to deep blue.
• Much of the volatile essential
oils reside in their calyces.
Odour: Unique aromatic

Rosmary Constituents
• Hydroxy-cinnamic acid
• Rosmanol
• Epi-rosmanol
• Rosmarinic acid
• Carnosic acid
• Carnosol
• α and β amyrin
• Ursolic acid
• Oleanolic acid

Rosemary Oil
• Rosemary oil is extracted
from the fresh flowering
tops by steam distillation. It
yields 1.0 - 2.0 %.

Rosemary Oil - CONSTITUENTS
• It contains 0.8-6 % of Esters and 8-20
% of alcohols. The main chemical
components of rosemary oil are:
• α -pinene
• β –pinene
• Borneol
• Camphor
• Bornyl acetate
• Camphene
• 1,8-cineole
• limonene.

ROSEMARY OIL USES
COSMETIC :
• Rosemary acts on the hair follicles by stimulating
growth and acts against dandruff.
• It is used in preparations for acne and dermatitis.
• Rosemary is also one of the ingredients used in the
preparation of eau de cologne.
• It is added to liniments as a fragrant stimulant.

ROSEMARY OIL USES
PHARMACEUTICAL AND THERAPEUTIC
• Rosemary oil has a pronounced action on the brain
as it clears the mind and aids the memory.
• It is an external stimulant and a relaxant for
nervousness, muscle spasms, headaches, migraines,
neuralgia, mental fatigue and nervous exhaustion.
• The antiseptic action of rosemary oil is especially
suitable for intestinal infections and diarrhea.
• It also eases colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic
disorders and jaundice.

•On the respiratory system, rosemary oil is
effective for asthma, bronchitis and whooping cough.
•It may ease congestion, puffiness and swelling and also
may improve acne, dermatitis and eczema.
•Diuretic
•Its stimulating action may benefit scalp disorders and
encourage hair growth.
•Rosemary has been used as a folk remedy against
rheumatism, and treating of wounds.
• It has been used in the treatment of cancer and as a
tonic to the kidneys

ROSEMARY OIL USES
FOOD AND FLAVOURING
• Rosemary is used in food products and non alcoholic
beverages.
• Fresh and dried rosemary leaves, are used as seasonings
for soups,meat, fish, and poultry.
INDUSTRIAL
• It is used as an ingredient in soaps, creams, candles,
deodorants, hair tonics, and shampoos.
• It is also used in many household cleaners and air
fresheners.
• It is a major constituent of some organic pesticides.
• The antibacterial and antioxidant activity of rosemary is
used to extend the keeping quality of fats and meat.

ROSEMARY OIL USES
OTHER
• Rosemary is used as a groundcover and garden plant.
It can be planted as hedge.
• It is a good source of nectar for bees.
• The plant is used as an insect repellent.

CLOVE
DEFINITION: Cloves are the
dried flower buds of
Syzygium aromaticum
(Eugenia caryophyllus)
Family: Myrtaceaea.
Madagascar, Indonesia,
Pakistan & Brazil.

• Cloves are 10-17.5 mm
long.
• The head consists of 4
slightly projecting calyx
teeth, 4 membranous petals
• Odour: Spicy & Pungent
• Taste: Aromatic

CONSTITUENTS
14-21% Volatile oils
• Mainly eugenol & iso-eugenol
• Sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol
• Tannins
• Triterpene acids & esters
• Glycosides

USES OF CLOVE
• Stimulant aromatic
• Spice
• For the preparation of
volatile oil
• Sesquiterpenes:
potential
anticarcinogenic
compounds.

CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol
• Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes)
• Storage:like other volatile/essential oils – should be
stored in a well-fitted, air-tight container, & should be
protected from light & heat.

CLOVE OIL - USES
• Anti-septic
• Aromatic
• Stimulant
• Flavouring Agent

THYME & THYME OIL
DEFINITION:
• The whole leaves and
flowers of Thymus vulgaris.
or Thymus zygis
Family: Labiatae
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
• Indigenous to Central &
Southern Europe, Eastern
Africa, India, Turkey,
Pakistan & North America.

Evergreen perennial shrub that
grows up to 45 cm (18 inches)
high
• Woody root system
• Much-branched stem
• Small elliptical greenish gray
aromatic leaves upto 12mm in
length and opposite.
• Leaves are almost stalkless
with margins curved inwards
and highly aromatic
• Pale purple or white flowers

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
The main chemical components are:
• Thymol
• Carvacrol
• Linalol
• Borneol
• Camphene
• α -thujone
• α –pinene
• β-pinene
• p-cymene
• α -terpinene
• β-caryophyllene
Other Constituents:
Flavonoids: Flavonone and Dihydroflavonals
Biphenyls, Rosmarinic acid, Tannins, Resins, Triterpenes

Thyme Oil
• Thyme oil is extracted by
hydro- distillation method
• It has a rather sweet, yet
strongly herbal smell and
is reddish-brown to amber
• It is extracted from the
fresh or partly dried
flowering tops and leaves
of the plant by water or
steam distillation.

ACTIONS & USES
Culinary uses:
• Flavouring agent (to flavour meats, soups, )
Medicinal use:
• The main component of the essential oil of thyme, thymol,
• is active against Salmonella and Staphylococcus bacteria.
• The antiseptic tonic properties of thyme make it a useful tonic
for the immune system in chronic, especially fungal, infections
as well as an effective remedy for chest infections such as
bronchitis, whooping cough, and pleurisy.
Therapeutic properties of thyme oil:
• antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, backache,
carminative, diuretic, expectorant, insecticide, stimulant, tonic
and vermifuge

Industrial :
• Industrial The essential oil of thyme is used to preserve
processed meat and butter, and in making chewing
gum, ice cream, candy, and the liqueur Benedictine.
• Thymol is active ingredient in mouthwashes (Listerine)
COSMETIC :
It is used for skin problems such as oily skin, sciatica,
acne, dermatitis, eczema and insect bites.

FENNEL
DEFINITION: Fennel consists
of the dried ripe fruits of
Foeniculum vulgare
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
Europe, India, China &
Egypt.

Macroscopic Characters
• Colour - Green to yellowish-
brown
• Odour - Sweet aromatic
• Taste - Strongly aromatic
• Shape - Straight or slightly
curved
• It is five-sided fruit in the form
of cremocarps. Fruits are
glabrous with straight,
prominent, yellow coloured
five primary ridges.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
• 1-4 % Volatile oil
• trans-anethole
• Antethole
• Limonene
• Estragole
• Fenchone
• Flavonoids
• Coumarins
• Glycosides

ACTIONS & USES
ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Expectorant
• Aromatic
- All due to anethole (and
fenchone)
USES
• Flatulence
• Dyspepsia
• Chronic coughs & catarrh

Foeniculum vulgare – USES
• Culinary purposes
• Used in medicine as a
flavouring
• Carminative

NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL
Definition: Nutmeg is the
dried kernel of the seed of
Myristica fragrans
Family: Myristicaceae.
• Indigenous to the Molucca
Islands (Spice Islands)
• Cultivated in Indonesia,
Malaysia, Pakistan & the
West Indies.

• Nutmeg trees are evergreen,
growing up to 20 m in
height.
• Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm
long & 2 cm broad.
• Odour: Strong & aromatic
• Taste: Pungent and slightly
bitter.

NUTMEG OIL
Nutmeg oil is distilled from the
kernels of Myristica fragrans.
CONSTITUENTS
• Pinene (15-26%)
• Sabinene (14-29%)
• Limonene (2-7%)
• Terpinen-4-ol (2-6%)
• Safrole (2.5%)
• Eugenol & eugenol derivatives
• Myristicin (5-12%) – a benzene:
toxic to humans (large does of
nutmeg or nutmeg oil may cause
convulsions).

MACE
Common mace or Banda
mace consists of the dried
arillus or arillode of M.
fragrans.
Description: bright red
colour & lacks in aroma.

MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (similar to that
of nutmeg) – eugenol
derivatives are the main
active constituents –
responsible for the anti-
bacterial effects.
• Also has 2 anti-microbial
resorcinols (Malabaricone B
and C)
Nutmegs, maces & their oils,
are all used for
• Carminatives
• Flavouring
• Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea of
nutmeg – Ayurveda).

Anise Fruit & Oil
Definition: The dried,
ripe fruits of
Pimpinella Anisum
Family: Umbelliferae
• Cultivated in Europe
(Spain, Germany,
Italy, Russia,
Bulgaria), Egypt,
America, Pakistan.

Macroscopical characteristics
• Perennial herb with
white umbelliferous
flowers .
• Often entire attached
to a slender pedicel
• Enlarged at the base
and tapering at the
apex
• Rough to touch due
to the presence of
hairs

Active constituents:
• Volatile oils (2-3%):
• Trans-Anethol (87-94%)
• Anisaldehyde (1.0-1.4%)
• Linalol (1.5%)
• Chavicol
• Moisture: 9-13%
• Protein: 18%
• Fixed oil: 8-23%
• Starch: 5%
• Crude fibre: 12-25%
• Essential oil yielded by distillation is
generally around 2-3%
and anethole makes up 80-90% of this.

Uses:
1. Carminative .
2. Condiment .
3. Flavoring agent .
4. Antispasmodic .
5. Popular drink (Tea and flavored liqueur) .
6. The essential oil has reportedly been used as
an insecticide against head-lice and mites

Star Anise fruits
• Botanical name: Illicium verum
• Family : Illiciaceae
• Perennial evergreen trees (4-5)m in height.
The fruits consist of 8 (one seed) follicles
(parts).
• Fruits color : reddish brown.
• Taste :aromatic & spicy.
• Odor: aromatic.
• Origin : China & Japan.

Chemical constituents
• Volatile oil (5%-9%) :anethole (80%-90%)
• Uses : like Anise fruits uses

EUCALYPTUS LEAF
DEFINTION: Eucalyptus
leaf consists of the whole or
cut dried leaves of the older
branches of Eucalyptus
globulus,
Family: Myrtaceae.
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Portugal, S.Africa, Spain,
China, Brazil, Australia,
India, Pakistan & Paraguay.

Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION
MACROSCOPICAL
• Older dried leaves are grey-
brown & have lateral veins.
• Secretory oil cells are
visible in leaves held to the
light.

Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile Oil
• (at least 2 %)
• sesquiterpene - Anti-
bacterial action against
oral pathogens.

EUCALYPTUS OIL
• Eucalyptus oil is the volatile oil obtained by the
distillation of the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus globulus
and other species of Eucalyptus.
• Only a certain amount of species produce oil suitable for
medicinal use – the main criteria is a high cineole
content and low amounts of phellandrene and
aldehydes.
• Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea,
• E. smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.

CHARACTERISTICS &
CONSTITUENTS
CHARACTERISTICS
• Colourless or pale yellow
liquid
• Aromatic & camphoraceous
in odour.
• Pungent & camphoraceous
in taste, which is followed
by a sensation of cold.
• It is soluble in 90% alcohol,
fixed oils, fats and in
paraffin and insoluble in
water

CONSTITUENTS
• At least 70 volatile oils:
Chiefly contains
cineole, also known as
eucalyptol (about 80%).
• It also contains:
• Pinene
• Camphene
• Traces of Phellandrene
• Citronellal
• Geranyl acetate.

EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES
• Alleviating the symptoms of
nasopharyngeal infections
• Treating coughs
• Chronic bronchitis
• Decongestant.
• Counter-irritant
• Antiseptic
• Expectorant
• Official preparations
• Mixtures, inhalations, Nasal
Drops, lozenges and pastilles;
also applied externally as
ointments and liniments.

CHENOPODIUM OIL
DEFINTION: Chenopodium
oil is a volatile oil obtained by
steam distillation from the
fresh flowering and fruiting
plants (except roots) of
Chenopodium ambrosioldes
FAMILY: Chenopodiaceae
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
Eastern and Central U.S.A,
Caribbean islands, Europe,
Mexico, Canada, India and
Pakistan

Description:
• Colour- Colourless to
light yellow coloured
liquid.
• Odour: Unpleasant and
characteristic.
• Taste- - Bitter and
burning.
• Solubility- It is soluble
in alcohol (70%) and
insoluble in water.

Chemical Constituents:
• The herb contains 0.5 to 1.0% volatile oil,
while fruits contain 1 to 4% of oil.
• The oil contains chiefly ascaridole which is an
unsaturated terpene peroxide (70 to 80%)
• p-cymene about 20%
• Myrcene
• 1 –limonene
• Camphor.

Uses:
• Use as anthelmintic
• Specifically for round-worms (Ascaris).
• Used to expel hook-worms and dwarf tape-
worms.
• It has no action on large tape-worms.
• Used against intestinal amoebae and in veterinary
practice.
• Storage: Chenopodium oil is stored in closed
containers, in cool places away from light

Bitter Orange Peel
Definition: The dried
outer part of the ripe
or nearly ripe fruits
of Citrus Aurantium
Family: Rutaceae
• Cultivated in
Southern Spain,
Malta, West Indies,
America, India, Syria
and Pakistan.

Collection & Preparation
• Peel should be removed
with as little of white “Zest”
as possible.
• Removed in 4-quarters or in
a spiral band
• Also found in thin strips,
similar to those found in
marmalades.

Macroscopical characteristics
• Color: Variable but
reddish brown (Spiral
form) and Greenish
brown (quarters form)
• Odour: Fragrant
• Taste: aromatic and
very bitter
• Inner surface bears
a small amount of
Zest.

Active constituents:
• Volatile oils (2.0%):
• Vitamin C
• Flavonoides
• Glycosoides:
• Hesperidins and
Neohesperidine
Oil is collected by
Expression method
from the fruit.

Uses:
1. Flavoring agent .
2. Bitter Tonic

Sweet Orange Peel
Botanical name:
Citrus aurantium,
Var. Dulcis
Family: Rutaceae
Parts Used---
Fruit, flowers, peel.
India, China, Spain,
Madeira,Pakistan.

• Description: Sweet Orange is
derived from an evergreen tree. It Is
smaller than the bitter orange tree,
and less hardy with fewer or no
spines. The fruit itself has a sweet
pulp with no bitter membrane.
• The peel of sweet orange is thinner
than bitter peel and is less rough.
• The taste is aromatic and pungent
but lacks bitterness of the bitter
orange peel
Sweet Orange Peel

Constituents
Oil of Sweet Orange Peel contains:
• limonene (at least 90%)
• The remaining 10 % being the odorous
constituents:
• Citral
• Citronellal, etc.

Uses of Sweet Orange Peel
• as a flavouring agent,
• in chronic bronchitis.
• as a mild nervous stimulant.
• Common Uses: antidepressant, antiseptic,
antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative,
deodorant,
It has also been applied to combat Colds,
constipation, flatulence.

CINNAMON: Cinnamomum zeylanicum
• DEFINITION: Cinnamon
is the dried bark of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Family: Lauraceae).
• GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
South India, Madagascar,
Jamaica & Brazil.

PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum
Individually scraped barks
are placed inside each
other.
Compound quills are dried
on wooden frames in
the open air without
exposure to direct
sunlight.
Sorted into grades.

• Normally received in shorter lengths
known as ‘cigar lengths’.
• Consists of a single or double compound
quill about 6-10 mm diameter of varying
length.
• External surface: is yellow-brown,
shining, wavy lines
• Inner surface: darker, longitudinally
striated.
• Odour: fragrant
• Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic

Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (at least 1.2
%)
• Phlobaphenes
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
• Starch

CINNAMON OIL
• It is light yellow (when freshly
distilled) in colour and changes
to red on storage.
• Cinnamon oil contains:
• Cinnamaldehyde (60- 75%)
• Eugenol (4 - 10%)
• Benzaldehyde
• Cuminaldehyde
• Terpenes like Phellandrene,
Pinene.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Bark & Oil) -
USES
• Flavouring agent
• Mild astringent
• Stomachic
• Antiseptic
• Oil: Carminative
• Germicide
• Commercially, it is used
as a spice and condiment,
and also in the preparation
of candy, dentifrices and
perfumes.

LEMON PEEL Oil
Definition:
• Peel is obtained from the
fruit of Citrus limon
Family: Rutaceae.
Botanical Description:
• Small tree, growing to 3-5
m in height.
• Mediterranean Regions,
India, Pakistan.

Limonis Cortex –
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
• Lemons are collected before
the green colour changes to
yellow.
• The smaller fruit, which
would not be sold on the
produce market, are used in
the preparation of oil of
lemon –
• The peel is removed with a
sharp knife in the form of a
spiral band.

CHARACTERISTICS
• Dried lemon peel occurs
in spiral bands.
• The outer surface is
rough & yellow; the
inner surface is pulpy
& white.
Odour: Strong &
characteristic
Taste: aromatic & bitter

CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
• Should contain at least 2.5%
volatile oil
• Vitamin C
• Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
• Pectin
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
USES
• Flavouring purposes

LEMON OILS
Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of the
fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon
BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without the
use of heat, from the fresh peel.
• Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields oil
of inferior quality.
• Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by
expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical purposes.
Geographical Sources:
Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.

Preparation of Lemon Oils
i. Hand Methods
No longer applicable to
pharmaceutical oils

Production of Lemon Oils
ii. Machine Processes
Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.
• Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,
rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action of the
sponge method.
iii. Distilled Oils
Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,
mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is much
cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.

Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS
• Terpenes – mainly limonene (about 90 %)
• Sesquiterpenes
• Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)
• Esters
• Other aromatic compounds like Geranyl acetate
and terpineol
• Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and should
be protected from the action of air & light as
much as possible.

BITTER ALMOND OIL
Definition: Almond (bitter) oil is
extracted from Prunus
amygdalus var. amara,
Family: Rosaceae
• The Bitter almond tree is native
to Western Asia and North Africa
and is widely cultivated in Spain,
Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia and
Egypt.

Morphology
• Almond trees belong to the
rose family and are closely
related to peach trees.
• Almond trees reach a
height of about 30 feet (9
m) and have pink (Bitter
almond) or white blossoms
(Sweet almond).

CONSTITUENTS
• Almond oil has various
chemical compounds that
include:
• Amygdalin
• Benzaldehyde
• Leucine
• Valine
• Phenylalanine
• Lysine
• Arginine
• Hydrocyanic (prussic
acid) etc.

Uses
• The oil of bitter almonds is
used after the poisonous
acid (prussic acid) that
gives the bitter taste has
been removed.
• Bitter-almond oil is used
as a flavoring in foods, soft
drinks, and medicines,
• and as a fragrance for
perfume, soaps, and
cosmetics.

Pharmacological roles
• Aphrodisiac,
• febrifuge,
• vermifuge,
• bactericidal,
• germicidal,
• fungicidal and anti viral
• sedative & anesthetic,
• anti spasmodic,
• aperient,
• diuretic,
• anti carcinogenic,
• sedative and tonic.

CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL
DEFINITION: Caraway
consists of the dried, ripe
fruits of Caram carvi .
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Europe,Holland, Denmark,
Germany, Russia, Finland,
Poland, Hungary, Britain,
Egypt, Morocco, Australia
& China, Pakistan

Fruits: are slightly
curved, brown &
glabrous.
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3
mm wide
Shape : The mericarps are
elongated, 5-sided,
narrow tapering at the
ends.
Odour & taste:
Characteristic aromatic

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1-7 % Volatile oils
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Carveole
8-20 % Fixed oils
• Proteins
• Calcium oxalates
• Colouring matter
• Resin

Uses
• It is used as an aromatic,
• a stimulant,
• and carminative.
• It is used as a spice for culinary purposes.
• Also for flavoring the bread, biscuits, cheese,
and cakes.

BUCHU
DEFINITION: Buchu
consists of the dried
leaves of Agathosma
betulina
Family:Rutaceae.
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
South Africa, Afghanistan,
India, Nepal, Pakistan

• A small shrubby plant.
• It has conspicuous oil
glands that release a
strong aroma.
• The delicate stem bears
five-petalled white
flowers
• It is said by some that
Buchu has a substance
that can block out
ultraviolet light.

Agathosma betulina oil
Extraction
• Buchu oil is extracted
from the dried leaves by
steam distillation.

Agathosma betulina – CONSTITUENS &
USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils
• Pulegone
• Menthone & isomenthone
• limonene
Diosmin
Mucilage
Resin
Calcium oxalates
Buchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action
USES/ACTIONS
Diuretic
Urinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s

CAMPHOR OIL
B. Source: Cinnamomum Camphora
• Geographical Source: Tree is native to
Formosa (Taiwan), China and Japan
• Morphology: Grows up to 100 feet
• Chinese used it to build ships and temples,
because of the durable and aromatic
properties of the wood

Extraction and Properties
• Steam distillation and
rectified under
vacuum followed by
filter pressed.
• After extraction oil
produced is known as
white, yellow and
brown camphor
• Only white camphor oil
is used

Chemical Constituents
Alpha
Pinene
Beta Pinene Camphene Sabinene
Limonene 1,8 Cineole Para cymene Furfural

Uses
•-Aromatherapy
•-Cosmetics
•-Medicinal
•Anti-Convulsant
•antitussive,

INTRODUCTION
FAMILY Lamiaceae
BOTANICAL NAME Mentha spicata (L.)
ENGLISH NAME Spearmint, Gardenmint
URDU NAME Pudina
PART USED Dried leaves, FlowerTops

Chemical Constituents
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Dihydrocarveol Acetate
• Phellandrene
• Menthone
• Resins
• Tannins

Medicinal Uses
• Digestive Disorders
• Carminative
• Antispasmodics
• Anticancer
• Hirsutism
• Stimulant
• Flavoring agent

Uses of Spearmint
•It is used in the manufacture of lozenges, toothpastes, pain
balms, cold balms etc.
•It helps in treatment of asthma, relieves fever, helps in
relieving constipation, diarrhea & nausea.
• It helps in relieving headaches, migraines, fatigue & stress.
• In females it can help to stimulaate high flow of blood &
Leucorrhoea & releases urine retention.
For Aromatherapy: It is used as a massage oil, it is used in cream
& lotion and helps in itching.
• It is used in flavoring of confectionaries and food & Beverages.

ANETHUM- DILL
DEFINITION: consist of
dried ripe fruits of Anethum
graveolens Linn.
Family: Umbelliferae
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Indigenous to South Europe
and cultivated in England
Germany Romania and
Mediterranean countries

• The fruits are yellowish or pale
brown.
• Size: The fruits are about 4 mm in
length, 2 to 3 mm in width and 1
mm in thickness.
• Shape: Broadly ovate. The fruits
are found in the form of mericarps
usually separated and free from
pedicel.
• Odour and Taste: Aromatic and
characteristic

ANETHUM- DILL OIL
Extraction
• Dill oil is extracted by
steam distillation, mainly
from the seeds, or the
whole herb, fresh or partly
dried.
Oil properties
• Dill oil has a grass-like
smell and colorless or
pale yellow liquid with a
watery viscosity.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oil (2.4 – 4.0%):
• The chief constituent of
the volatile oil is
aromatic liquid, known
as carvone (43 to 63%).
• It also contains:
• Dihydrocarvone,
• D-limonene,
• Phellandrene and other
terpenes.
• Fixed oil and proteins.

Uses
• It is used as an aromatic,
• a stimulant,
• carminative
• and also in gastric disturbances of infants and
children.
• The oil of dill is used in the preparation of dill
water, gripe water and also as flavouring agent.

INTRODUCTION
• Botanical name: Allium sativum linn.
• Family: Liliaceae.
• Part used : bulb
• Geographical Sources:
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
, Malaysia

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
• Allicin (yellowish liquid).
• Aliin.
• Mucilage.
• Albumin.
• Alpha-glutamyl peptides.
• Volatile oils.
• Amino-acids as: methionine,lucine,cysteine.
• Vitamin C.

USES
• Anti-cancer.
• Flavouring agent.
• Treat diabetes.
• Prevent atheroseclerosis.
• For treating respiratory diseases as
Bronchitis,asthama,tuberclosis.
• Expectorant.
• Stimulant.
• Hypertension.
• Skin treatment in fungal infections.

Volatile oils 1st lecture

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