Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, excluding simple substances like carbonates. Carbon forms diverse structures due to its ability to form four covalent bonds and its position in the periodic table. The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons consisting of carbon and hydrogen. Organic compounds can form covalent, metallic, or ionic bonds depending on the atoms involved. Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. Polarity, melting/boiling points, and solubility are determined by bond polarity within molecules. Functional groups are common bonding patterns that determine a molecule's reactivity.
HSSC Second year Chemistry course slides for Federal Board Pakistan, lectures by Dr. Raja Hashim Ali (also available on Youtube as a series of video lectures).
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCfCZszhGHBfsPBH3CJVP_tEKDdynNFbo
Introduction
History
Definition
Types of H bond
Hydrogen bond in water
Bifurcated and over - Coordinated hydrogen bond in water
Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins
Hydrogen bonds in polymers
Systematic hydrogen bond
Importance of hydrogen bond
Conclusion
References
[ Visit http://www.wewwchemistry.com ] This is a summary presentation of the introductory topics in Organic Chemistry, prepared according to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE A Level 9647 H2 Chemistry syllabus.
HSSC Second year Chemistry course slides for Federal Board Pakistan, lectures by Dr. Raja Hashim Ali (also available on Youtube as a series of video lectures).
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLCfCZszhGHBfsPBH3CJVP_tEKDdynNFbo
Introduction
History
Definition
Types of H bond
Hydrogen bond in water
Bifurcated and over - Coordinated hydrogen bond in water
Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins
Hydrogen bonds in polymers
Systematic hydrogen bond
Importance of hydrogen bond
Conclusion
References
[ Visit http://www.wewwchemistry.com ] This is a summary presentation of the introductory topics in Organic Chemistry, prepared according to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE A Level 9647 H2 Chemistry syllabus.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP MODIFICATION : Medicinal ChemistryPRUTHVIRAJ K
Once a lead compound or a pharmacophore structure with the desired pharmacological effect has been identified, organic chemists can introduce modifications in the chemical structure of the lead compound with the goal of improving the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of a drug candidate. These evolved structures are known as analogs.
3
Alkanes are organic compounds that consist entirely of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms and lack any other functional groups. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and can be subdivided into the following three groups: the linear straight-chain alkanes, branched alkanes, and cycloalkanes.
ENZYME INHIBITION THE MOST IMPORTANT TOPIC FOR BIOLOGY AS WELL AS CHEMISTRY PEOPLES. WE HAVE HERE COVERED FOR THE PHARMA STUDENTS THIS WILL MAKE THEM EASY AS WE ARE COLLECTED ALL THE DATA A SINGLE PLACE WICH COVERS ALL THE COTENTS.
An artificial enzyme is a synthetic organic molecule or ion that mimics one or more functions of an enzyme.
Molecules are designed and modified to achieve some desirable features of enzymes.
Protein engineering has been developed to design and synthesize molecules with the attributes of enzymes for non-natural reactions.
They have a molecular weight of less than 2000 Dalton.
They have the ability to stabilize at a higher temperature.
They are also known as synzymes or enzyme mimics.
stereochemistry and drug action ; basic introduction about stereochemistry and stereoisomers ; pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics concept of stereochemistry ; easson Stedman hypothesis ; stereo selectivity criteria .
FUNCTIONAL GROUP MODIFICATION : Medicinal ChemistryPRUTHVIRAJ K
Once a lead compound or a pharmacophore structure with the desired pharmacological effect has been identified, organic chemists can introduce modifications in the chemical structure of the lead compound with the goal of improving the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of a drug candidate. These evolved structures are known as analogs.
3
Alkanes are organic compounds that consist entirely of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms and lack any other functional groups. Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 and can be subdivided into the following three groups: the linear straight-chain alkanes, branched alkanes, and cycloalkanes.
ENZYME INHIBITION THE MOST IMPORTANT TOPIC FOR BIOLOGY AS WELL AS CHEMISTRY PEOPLES. WE HAVE HERE COVERED FOR THE PHARMA STUDENTS THIS WILL MAKE THEM EASY AS WE ARE COLLECTED ALL THE DATA A SINGLE PLACE WICH COVERS ALL THE COTENTS.
An artificial enzyme is a synthetic organic molecule or ion that mimics one or more functions of an enzyme.
Molecules are designed and modified to achieve some desirable features of enzymes.
Protein engineering has been developed to design and synthesize molecules with the attributes of enzymes for non-natural reactions.
They have a molecular weight of less than 2000 Dalton.
They have the ability to stabilize at a higher temperature.
They are also known as synzymes or enzyme mimics.
stereochemistry and drug action ; basic introduction about stereochemistry and stereoisomers ; pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics concept of stereochemistry ; easson Stedman hypothesis ; stereo selectivity criteria .
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents, the more stable the resulting compound would be.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2. Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon with the exception
of simple compounds e.g. carbonates (CO3 2-), carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
With the key element carbon, organic compounds contain large chemical diversity.
They contain wide variety of elements and varsity in the structures. This is due to the
unique property of carbon to form large number of compounds. This behavior of
carbon relates to:
• Its position in the periodic table.
• Its ability to form four stable covalent bonds and
• due to its relative small size which allows easy formation of multiple bonds.
Simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons, that is the compounds made of
carbons and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are divided in two broad classes, Aliphatic and
Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
3. Chemical Bonding
Bonding – attractions between atoms or ions.
There are several types of chemical bonds, but we will discuss three of the strongest
types :
1. Covalent bonds
2. Metallic bonds
3. Ionic bonds
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds – bonds formed from atoms sharing pairs of electrons
* Molecules formed this way: CH4, H2O, O=C=O, etc …
* NO charged particles / ions involved - Sharing electrons between atoms
* Each atom “donates” one electron to the shared pair
Two atoms can share up to 3 pairs of electrons
1 shared pair = single covalent bond
2 shared pairs = double covalent bond
3 shared pairs = triple covalent bond
4. Each shared pair represented as a line in a structural formula.
Example: *H-H *C-C *C-H *O-H *N-H *C-O
**C=C **C=O *** ***
*This is a single covalent bond **This is a double covalent bond ***This is a triple
covalent bond
Metallic bonding
• Occurs between like atoms of a metal in the free state.
• Valence e- are mobile (move freely among all metal atoms).
• Positive ions in a sea of electrons.
Ionic bonding
• electrons are transferred between valence shells of atoms.
• ionic compounds are made of ions.
• ionic compounds are called Salts or Crystals.
DOUBLE bond
atoms that share two e- pairs (4 e-) O=O
TRIPLE bond
atoms that share three e- pairs (6 e-)
5. Always formed between metals and non-metals
[METALS ]+ [NON-METALS ]-
Types of Covalent Bonds
NON-Polar bonds
• Electrons shared evenly in the bond
• Electronegativity difference is zero
NaCl
6. Polar bond
Electrons unevenly shared
Electronegativity difference greater than zero but less than 2.0
closer to 2.0 more polar more “ionic character”
Place these molecules in order of increasing bond polarity
which is least and which is most?
Sometimes the bonds within a molecule are polar and yet the molecule is non-
polar because its shape is symmetrical.
Polar molecules (Dipoles) Not equal on all sides
Polar bond between 2 atoms makes a polar molecule asymmetrical shape of
molecule.
7. Melting point and boiling point
The boiling point of a substance can also be defined as the temperature at which it
can change its state from a liquid to a gas throughout the bulk of the liquid at a given
pressure. For example, the melting point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure is 0 C
(32 F, 273.15 K; this is also known as the ice point) and the boiling point of water is
100 C.
The melting point (m.p.) is the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid, and
the boiling point (b.p.) is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Melting point is used to characterize organic compounds and to confirm the purity.
The melting point of a pure compound is always higher than the melting point of that
compound mixed with a small amount of an impurity. The more impurity is present,
the lower the melting point. Finally, The melting point increases as the molar mass
increases, and the boiling point increases as the molecular size increases. The
increase in melting point is less regular than the increase in boiling point, because
packing influences the melting point of a compound.
8. Polarity and solubility
Generally, there is a direct correlation between the polarity of a molecule and the
number and types of polar or nonpolar covalent bond that are present. In a few
cases, a molecule having polar bonds, but in a symmetrical arrangement, may give
rise to a nonpolar molecule, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2).
The term bond polarity is used to describe the sharing of electrons between atoms.
In a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are shared equally between two atoms.
A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for the
electrons than the other atom.
Polarity is a physical property of a compound, which relates other physical
properties, e.g. melting and boiling points, solubility and intermolecular
interactions between molecules.
When this relative attraction is strong, the bond is an ionic bond. The polarity in a
bond arises from the different electronegativities of the two atoms that take part in
the bond formation. The greater the difference in electronegativity between the
bonded atoms, the greater is the polarity of the bond. For example, water is a polar
molecule, whereas cyclohexane is nonpolar.
Polarity is a physical property of a compound, which relates other physical
properties, e.g. melting and boiling points, solubility and intermolecular interactions
between molecules.
9. Solubility is the amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a specific solvent under
given conditions. The dissolved substance is called the solute and the dissolving
fluid is called the solvent, which together form a solution. The process of dissolving
is called solvation, or hydration when the solvent is water. In fact, the interaction
between a dissolved species and the molecules of a solvent is solvation.
The solubility of molecules can be explained on the basis of the polarity of
molecules. Polar, e.g. water, and nonpolar, e.g. benzene, solvents do not mix. In
general, like dissolves like; i.e., materials with similar polarity are soluble in each
other. A polar solvent, e.g. water, has partial charges that can interact with the
partial charges on a polar compound, e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl). As nonpolar
compounds have no net charge, polar solvents are not attracted to them.
11. Functional groups: are common bonding patterns found in organic
molecules. Examples:
C
C H
H
H
H
H
H
No functional group
Only carbon and hydrogen
Alkenes
Alkanes
Only carbon and hydrogen All single bonds
A carbon to carbon double bond
A carbon to carbon triple bond
Alkynes
Only carbon and hydrogen
12. Alcohols
Only one oxygen
Can classify as 1º/2º/3º according to position of O-H group on carbon skeleton
Has an O-H group
Phenols
Only one oxygen
Has an O-H group
The O-H group is directly attached to a benzene ring
13. Aldehydes
Only one oxygen
Has a C=O group
C=O group is at the end of carbon chain, so is next door to a hydrogen atom
ketones
Only one oxygen
Has a C=O group
C=O group is not at the end of carbon chain, so is next door to 2 carbons
14. This -COOH group has to be at the end of a carbon chain (why?)
Carboxylic acids
Has 2 oxygens
Has O-H and C=O groups on the same carbon atom
Esters
Has 2 oxygens
One oxygen is part of a C=O bond, the other is next door, sandwiched between two carbons
15. Ethers
Has 1 oxygen
No O-H or C=O group
The oxygen is sandwiched between two carbon atoms
Amines
Has 1 Nitrogen
The NH2 group
Amide
Has a C=O group
Has 1 Nitrogen
The C=O relative to NH2 group
16. Mercaptans
Has 1 Sulfur
SH group
Thiols
Has a C=S group
The thiol group
Nitriles
Has a group
The cynide group
Nitro compounds
Has NO2 group
The Nitro group
