Introduction
History
Definition
Types of H bond
Hydrogen bond in water
Bifurcated and over - Coordinated hydrogen bond in water
Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins
Hydrogen bonds in polymers
Systematic hydrogen bond
Importance of hydrogen bond
Conclusion
References
Introduction
History
Definition
Types of H bond
Hydrogen bond in water
Bifurcated and over - Coordinated hydrogen bond in water
Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins
Hydrogen bonds in polymers
Systematic hydrogen bond
Importance of hydrogen bond
Conclusion
References
Introduction
History
Definition
Types of H bond
Hydrogen bond in water
Bifurcated and over - Coordinated hydrogen bond in water
Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins
Hydrogen bonds in polymers
Systematic hydrogen bond
Importance of hydrogen bond
Conclusion
References
1.Weak forces of attraction
2.Concepts of Hydrogen bonding
3.Types of hydrogen bonding
4.Properties of hydrogen bond.
5.Methods of detection of hydrogen bond.
6.Importance of Hydrogen bonding.
7.Vander walls forces
a.Ion-dipole
b.Dipole-dipole
c.London forces.
8.Origin of hydrogen bonds.
9.Consequences of hydrogen bonding.
10.Ice has less density than water.
11.Intermolecular forces.
It is about molecular orbital theory specially mo diagram of diatomic atoms,their bond orders,bond lengths and stability and experimental evidences of ionisation energy from PES.
In 1891,Emil fischer devised a method of representing the 3D structures of
molecules in 2D Structures on a plane (Paper) by convention, horizontal line
represent bonds projecting from the plane of paper towards the observer and
vertical line represent away from the observer
This presentation describes the concept of Hyperconjugation in simple words, gives definition of hyperconjugation, explains why it is called as 'No bond Resonance' and gives the effects of hyperconjugation on the chemical properties of compounds: alkyl cations and their relative stability, alkyl radicals and their relative stability, alkenes and their relative stability, bond length, anomeric effect and Baker - Nathan effect.
1.Weak forces of attraction
2.Concepts of Hydrogen bonding
3.Types of hydrogen bonding
4.Properties of hydrogen bond.
5.Methods of detection of hydrogen bond.
6.Importance of Hydrogen bonding.
7.Vander walls forces
a.Ion-dipole
b.Dipole-dipole
c.London forces.
8.Origin of hydrogen bonds.
9.Consequences of hydrogen bonding.
10.Ice has less density than water.
11.Intermolecular forces.
It is about molecular orbital theory specially mo diagram of diatomic atoms,their bond orders,bond lengths and stability and experimental evidences of ionisation energy from PES.
In 1891,Emil fischer devised a method of representing the 3D structures of
molecules in 2D Structures on a plane (Paper) by convention, horizontal line
represent bonds projecting from the plane of paper towards the observer and
vertical line represent away from the observer
This presentation describes the concept of Hyperconjugation in simple words, gives definition of hyperconjugation, explains why it is called as 'No bond Resonance' and gives the effects of hyperconjugation on the chemical properties of compounds: alkyl cations and their relative stability, alkyl radicals and their relative stability, alkenes and their relative stability, bond length, anomeric effect and Baker - Nathan effect.
Definition
What constitute a chemical bond?
Types of bond
1. Strong bond
Covalent bond
Glycosidic bond
Peptide bond
Disulfide bond
2. Weak bond
Hydrogen bond
Van der waals bond
Hydrophobic bond
Ionic bond
Conclusion
References
Assignment Slides- A short intro to chemical bondings, Water molecule, pH.
This is part of larger course of molecular electronics and biomolecules of nanotechnology.
Note- This is just basic concise part I made for assignment, any scientific inaccuracies is probable and highly regretted. Any constructive criticism is welcome.
Applied science./cosmetic dentistry course by Indian dental academyIndian dental academy
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Introduction
History
Tumor suppressor gene- pRB
- RB gene
- Role of RB in regulation of cell cycle
- Tumor associated with RB gene mutation
Tumor suppressor gene- p53
- What is p53 gene?
- Function of p53 gene
- How it regulates cell cycle
- What happen if p53 gene inactivated
- Cancer associated with p53 mutation
- Conclusion
- References
Introduction
Definition
History
Two hit hypothesis
Functions
Mutation in tumor suppressor genes
What is mutation
Inherited mutation of TSGs
Acquired mutation of TSGs
What is Oncogenes?
TSGs and Oncogenes : Brakes and accelerators
Stop and go signal
Examples of TSGs:
RB-The retinoblastoma gene
P53 protein
TSGs &cell suicide
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Protein synthesis
Synthesis of secretory proteins on membrane-bound ribosomes
Processing of newly synthesized proteins in the ER
Synthesis of integral membrane protein on membrane bound ribosomes
Maintenance of membrane asymmetry
Conclusion
Reference
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
Introduction
Definition
History
central dogma
Major components
mRNA,tRNA,rRNA
Energy source
Amino acids
Protien factor
Enzymes
Inorganic ions
Step involves in translation:
Aminoacylation of tRNA
Initiation
Elongation
termination
Importance of translation
Conclusion
Reference
Introduction
Protein modifications
Folding
Chaperon mediated
Enzymatic
Cleavage
Addition of functional groups
Chemical groups
Hydrophobic groups
Proteolysis
Conclusion
Reference
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
WHAT IS TRANSCRIPTION
PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION
STEPS OF TRANSCRIPTION
HOW TRANSCRIPTION OCCURS
PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
CONCLUSION
REFRENCES
Enzyme Kinetics and thermodynamic analysisKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Kinetics and thermodynamicSG
Thermodynamic in enzymatic reactions
balanced equations in chemical reactions
changes in free energy determine the direction & equilibrium state of chemical reactions
the rates of reactions
Factors effecting enzymatic activity
(i) Enzyme concentration.
(ii) Substrate concentration.
(iii)Temperature
(iv) pH.
(v) Activators.
(vi)Inhibitors
Michaelis-menten equation
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENECES
Recepter mediated endocytosis by kk ashuKAUSHAL SAHU
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
WHAT TYPE OF LIGANDS ENTER BY RME?
FORMATION OF CLATHRIN-COATED VESICLES
TRISKELIONS
ROLE OF DYNAMIN IN THE FORMATION OF CLATHRIN-COATED VESICLES
ROLE OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN THE FORMATION OF COATED VESICLES
ENDOCYTIC PATHWAY
LDLs AND CHOLESTROL METABOLISM
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
Prokaryotic translation machinery by kk KAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Definition
Factors required for Translation
Formation of aminoacyl t-RNA
1)Activation of amino acid
2) Transfer of amino acid to t-RNA
Translation involves following steps:-
1)Initiation
2)Elongation
3)Termination
Conclusion
Reference
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.
hydrogen bond 2 by KK Sahu sir
1. 1
By
KAUSHAL KUMAR SAHU
Assistant Professor (Ad Hoc)
Department of Biotechnology
Govt. Digvijay Autonomous P. G. College
Raj-Nandgaon ( C. G. )
2. INTRODUCTION
BONDING
HISTORY
TYPES OF HYDROGEN BOND
HYDROGEN BONDS IN WATER
HYDROGEN BONDING IN ALCOHOL
HYDROGEN BONDS IN DNAAND PROTEINS
HYDROGEN BONDS IN POLYMERS
SYMMETRIC HYDROGEN BOND
DIHYDROGEN BOND
ADVANCE THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN BOND
HYDROGEN BONDING PHENOMENA
CONCLSION
REFERENCES
2
3. hydrogen bond is the attractive interaction
of a hydrogen atom with an electronegative
atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine,
that comes from another molecule or
chemical group.
The hydrogen must be covalently bonded to
another electronegative atom to create the
bond. These bonds can occur between
molecules (intermolecularly), or within
different parts of a single molecule
(intramolecularly).
The hydrogen bond is stronger than a van der
Waals interaction, but weaker than covalent
or ionic bonds.
This type of bond occurs in both inorganic
molecules such as water and organic
molecules such as DNA. 3
4. In the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond,
Linus Pauling credits T. S. Moore and T. F.
Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen
bond, in 1912.
Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to
account for the fact that trimethylammonium
hydroxide is a weaker base than
tetramethylammonium hydroxide.
The description of hydrogen bonding in its
more well-known setting, water, came some
years later, in 1920, from Latimer and
Rodebush. 4
5. A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom is a hydrogen bond donor.
This electronegative atom is usually fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.
An electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen is a hydrogen bond acceptor,
regardless of whether it is bonded to a hydrogen atom or not.
An example of a hydrogen bond donor is ethanol, which has hydrogen bonded to oxygen;
an example of a hydrogen bond acceptor which does not have a hydrogen atom bonded to
it is the oxygen atom on diethyl ether.
Hydrogen attached to carbon can also participate in hydrogen bonding when the carbon
atom is bound to electronegative atoms, as is the case in chloroform, CHCl3.
The electronegative atom attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus
and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of
the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules, the resulting charge,
though only partial, represents a large charge density.
A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a lone pair of
electrons on another heteroatom, which becomes the hydrogen-bond Acceptor.
5
6. Intermolecular hydrogen bond
This occurs when the hydrogen
bonding is between H-atom of one
molecule and an atom of the
electronegative element of another
molecule. For example-
Hydrogen bond between the
molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
Hydrogen bond in alcohol or water
molecules.
Intermolecular hydrogen bond results
into association of molecules. Hence,
it usually increases the melting point,
boiling point, viscosity, surface
tension, solubility, etc.
6
An example of intermolecular
hydrogen bonding in a self-
assembled dimer complex
reported by Meijer and
coworkers.
7. Intramolecular hydrogen bond
This bond is formed between the
hydrogen atom and an atom of the
electronegative element (F, O, N),
of the same molecule.
Intramolecular hydrogen bond
results in the cyclization of the
molecules and prevents their
association.
Consequently, the effect of this
bond on the physical properties is
negligible. For example,
intramolecular hydrogen bonds
are present in molecules such as
o-nitrophenol, o-nitrobenzoic
acid, etc.
7
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in
acetyl-acetone helps stabilize the enol
tautomer
8. The most ubiquitous, and perhaps simplest, example of a hydrogen bond is found
between water molecules.
In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two
molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when
only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model
system.
When more molecules are present, as is the case of liquid water, more bonds are
possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each
of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule.
This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other
molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its
two hydrogen atoms).
Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an
open hexagonal lattice.
The density of ice is less than water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of
water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.
Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each
molecule can form relative to its low molecular mass.
Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point,
melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by
hydrogen bonds.
8
10. An alcohol is an organic molecule
containing an -OH group.
Any molecule which has a hydrogen
atom attached directly to an oxygen
or a nitrogen is capable of hydrogen
bonding. Such molecules will
always have higher boiling points
than similarly sized molecules
which don't have an -OH or an -NH
group. The hydrogen bonding
makes the molecules "stickier", and
more heat is necessary to separate
them.
Ethanol, CH3CH2-OH, and
methoxymethane, CH3-O-CH3, both
have the same molecular formula,
C2H6O.
10
11. Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining
the three-dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic
bases.
In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same
macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps
determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role.
The double helical structure of DNA, for example, is due largely
to hydrogen bonding between the base pairs, which link one
complementary strand to the other and enable replication.
In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form
between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens.
When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving
alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is
formed.
Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure
of protein through interaction of R-groups.
11
The structure
of part of a
DNA double
helix
13. Many polymers are strengthened by hydrogen bonds in their main chains.
Among the synthetic polymers, the best known example is nylon, where hydrogen
bonds occur in the repeat unit and play a major role in crystallization of the material.
The bonds occur between carbonyl and amine groups in the amide repeat unit.
They effectively link adjacent chains to create crystals, which help reinforce the
material.
The effect is greatest in aramid fibre, where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear
chains laterally.
The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis, making the fibres extremely stiff and
strong.
Hydrogen bonds are also important in the structure of cellulose and derived polymers
in its many different forms in nature, such as wood and natural fibres such as cotton
and flax.
13
Para-aramid structure
14. A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the
proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms.
The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal.
It is an example of a 3-center 4-electron bond. This type of bond is much
stronger than "normal" hydrogen bonds. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its
strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure,
and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid
and formic acid at high pressure.
It is also seen in the bifluoride ion [F−H−F]−.
Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in
formic acid at high pressure .
Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather
than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high
pressure .
Low-barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two
heteroatoms is very small.
14
15. The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related
dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding
interaction involving hydrogen atom.
These structures have been known for some time, and well
characterized by crystallography; however, an understanding of
their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond,
and covalent bond remains unclear.
Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton
acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms.
In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi-bonds or metal
complexes. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride
serves as a proton acceptor; thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen
interaction.
Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of
these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond
length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor
system.
15
16. The hydrogen bond remains a fairly mysterious object in the theoretical study of
quantum chemistry and physics.
Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric dependent
electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds.
This is slightly different than the intramolecular bound states of, for example,
covalent or ionic bonds; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state
phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum.
The question of the relationship between the covalent bond and the hydrogen bond
remains largely unsettled, though the initial theory proposed by Linus Pauling
suggests that the hydrogen bond has a partial covalent nature.
While alot of experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in water, for
example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and
molecular thermodynamics, the kinetic and dynamical properties of the hydrogen
bond in dynamical systems remains largely mysterious.
16
17. Dramatically higher boiling points of NH3, H2O, and HF
compared to the heavier analogues PH3, H2S, and HCl.
Increase in the melting point, boiling point, solubility, and
viscosity of many compounds can be explained by the concept
of hydrogen bonding.
Viscosity of anhydrous phosphoric acid and of glycerol.
Dimer formation in carboxylic acids and hexamer formation in
hydrogen fluoride, which occur even in the gas phase, resulting
in gross deviations from the ideal gas law.
Pentamer formation of water and alcohols in apolar solvents.
High water solubility of many compounds such as ammonia is
explained by hydrogen bonding with water molecules.
17
18. The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water is
due to a crystal structure stabilized by hydrogen
bonds.
Smart rubber utilizes hydrogen bonding as its sole
means of bonding, so that it can "heal" when torn,
because hydrogen bonding can occur on the fly
between two surfaces of the same polymer.
Strength of nylon and cellulose fibres.
Wool, being a protein fibre is held together by
hydrogen bonds, causing wool to recoil when
stretched. However, washing at high temperatures
can permamently break the hydrogen bonds and a
garment may permanently lose its shape.
18
19. A hydrogen bond is a type of attractive (dipole-dipole)
interaction between an electronegative atom and
a hydrogen atom bonded to another
electronegative atom. This bond always involves
a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen bonds can occur
between molecules or within parts of a
single molecule. A hydrogen bond tends to be stronger
than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent
bonds or ionic bonds.
19
20. Nelson and Cox- principle of biochemistry
Gerald Karp- cell and molecular biology
Lodish- molecular cell biology
www.wikipedia.com
20