This document discusses innate and acquired immunity. Innate immunity is inborn and provides non-specific resistance to pathogens. It includes barriers like skin and mucous membranes, antimicrobial substances, and phagocytic cells. Acquired immunity develops from exposure to pathogens and results in long-lasting, pathogen-specific protection. It can be active, arising from natural infection or artificial vaccination, or passive, through transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus or through administration of antisera.
Introduction
History
Types of immunity
Tissues of immunity
Cells of immunity
Basic aspects of immunology
Major histocompatibility complex
Cytokines
Disorders of immune system
Immune responses in periodontal pathogenesis
Periodontal vaccine
Host modulation
Conclusion
References
ANTIGEN, HAPTEN, ALL TYPES OF ANTIGENS, IMMUNOGEN , ATTRIBUTES OF ANTIGENICITY, DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY,
IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
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Introduction
History
Types of immunity
Tissues of immunity
Cells of immunity
Basic aspects of immunology
Major histocompatibility complex
Cytokines
Disorders of immune system
Immune responses in periodontal pathogenesis
Periodontal vaccine
Host modulation
Conclusion
References
ANTIGEN, HAPTEN, ALL TYPES OF ANTIGENS, IMMUNOGEN , ATTRIBUTES OF ANTIGENICITY, DETERMINANTS OF ANTIGENICITY,
IMMUNOLOGY KUBY, MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY & IMMUNOLOGY OF PANIKER , LIPPINCOTT'S IMMUNOLOGY, OTHER SOURCES.
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BIOTECHNOLOGY IS CHALLENGING SUBJECT TO TEACH AND UNDERSTAND ALSO .....THEIR INTERESTING PART IS TO LEARN ABOUT IMMUNITY AND THE IMPORTANT PART MAJOR COMPATIBILITY COMPLEX
Immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.
Immunity, vaccine, prophylaxis,immune system contains:
➢innate components (composed of primitive bone marrow cells that
are programmed to recognise foreign substances and react)
➢adaptive components (composed of more advanced lymphatic cells
that are programmed to recognise self substances and don't react
General immunity - is formed when the pathogen enters the bloodstream, as a
result, IgM and IgG (humoral immunity) are formed, and / or lymphocytes
specific against this pathogen are activated with different functional directions,
performing cellular protection (cellular immunity).
▪ Local immunity - is formed in places of accumulation of lymphoid tissue
(mucous membranes, salivary, mammary glands), intended for local humoral
(IgA and IgG) and cellular protection. Lymphoid tissue is especially potent in
the intestinal mucosa, less in the respiratory tract.
▪ It should be noted that the strength of the immune system and the speed of the
immune response increase with repeated, especially multiple, meetings with
the pathogen (booster effect).
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
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A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Immunity
1. - Department Of Conservative Dentistry And Endodontics
Second Year
Shubham Parmar
IMMUNITY
2. DEFINITION
Resistance exhibited by the host towards injury
caused by microorganism & their products
Immunity is concerned with reaction of body
against any foreign antigen
4. INNATE IMMUNITY
Resistance to infections that an individual
possesses by virtue of his genetic constitutional
make-up
Immunity present since birth (inborn)
It is not affected by prior contact with
microorganisms or immunisation
Non-specific: degree of resistance to infections in
general
Specific: resistance to particular pathogen
5. 3 levels of innate immunity: species, racial, individual
Species immunity:
Total or relative resistance to pathogen, shown by all
members of species
Eg: All human beings are resistant to plant pathogens
& many animal pathogens
Mechanism is not clearly understood but may be due
to physiological & bichemical differences between
tissues of different species
6. Racial immunity:
Different races within same species may show
differences in susceptibility to infection
Eg: high resistance of Algerian sheep to anthrax
Another example: genetic resistance to Plasmodium
falciparum in some parts of Africa
Racial differences are genetic in origin, by selection
& inbreeding
7. Individual immunity:
Difference in immunity exhibited by different
individuals in race
It is well documented that homozygous twins show
similar degrees of susceptibility to leprosy & TB
This immunity is due to genetic constitution of
individual
8. FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL
INNATE IMMUNITY
1. Age:
Very young & very old: more susceptible to
infectious disease
Fetus in uterus is protected from maternal infection
by placental barrier. But some pathogens cross the
barrier causing overwhelming infection resulting in
fetal death
Some infections are more severe in adults than in
young children due to hypersensitivity
Old persons are highly susceptible to infections due
to declined immune responses
9. 2. Hormonal influence:
Endocrine disorders (diabetes, hypothyroidism,
adrenal dysfunction) are associated with enhanced
sensitivity to infections
High incidence of staphylococcal sepsis in diabetes:
due to increased level of carbohydrates in tissues
Corticosteroid hormones have anti-inflammatory &
anti-phagocytic effect: depress host’s resistance
Elevated steroid level during pregnancy: hightened
susceptibility to many infections
11. MECHANISMS OF INNATE
IMMUNITY
1. Epithelial surface:
Skin & mucus membrane covering body protect it
against invasion by microorganisms
Skin:
Mechanical barrier
Possesses bactericidal activity due to high salt
concentration in drying sweat, sebaceous secretions &
long chain fatty acids
Normal flora on skin: prevents colonisation by
pathogens
12. Respiratory tract:
Inhaled particles are arrested in nasal passages on
moist mucus membrane surface
Pathogens are trapped by mucus lining epithelium &
given to pharynx where they are swallowed or
coughed out
Cough reflex: important defense mechanism
Nasal & respiratory secretions contain
mucopolysaccharides that combine with influenza &
other viruses
Particles that reach alveoli are ingested by phagocytic
cells
13. Digestive tract:
Mouth saliva: inhibitory effect on many microbes
Swallowed pathogens: destroyed by acidic pH of
gastric juice
Normal flora of ileum inhibits growth of pathogens
Conjunctiva:
Tear secretion flush away bacteria & other foreign
particles
Tear contains antibacterial lysozyme: break down
polysaccharide of bacterial cells
14. Genitourinary tract:
Flushing action of urine: eliminates bacteria from
urethra
Spermine & zinc in semen: antibacterial activity
Acidic pH of vaginal secretions in females, due to
fermentation of glycogen by lactobacilli, inhibit
pathogens
15. 2. Antibacterial substances in blood & tissues:
Complement system: bactericidal activity & result in
destruction of pathogenic bacteria
Antibacterial substances:
beta lysin, leukins, plakins, lactic acid,
lactoperoxidase, lysozyme
Interferons produced by cells: antiviral activity
16. 3. Cellular factors:
Pathogens invading blood & tissue: destroyed by
phagocytic cells
Phagocytes: microphages & macrophages
Microphages are polymorphonuclear leucocytes
Macrophages are wandering amoeboid cells in
tissues, reticuloendothelial cells & monocytes in
blood
17. Phagocytic action of phagocytes is divided in 4
stages:
Chemotaxis:
Phagocytic cells attracted by chemotactic substances
→ reach site of inflammation
Attachment:
Infective agent gets attached to phagocytic membrane
Ingestion:
Bacteria are engulfed by phagocytes
Membrane of phagosome fuses with lysosome to
form phagolysosome
18. Intracellular killing:
Lytic enzymes in phagolysosome destroy bacteria
Some bacteria (mycobacteria) resist such killing &
can multiply within phagolysosome
A class of lymphocyts called Natural killer (NK) cells
play important role in non-specific defence against
viral infections & tumor
19.
20. 4. Inflammation:
Entry of pathogens → tissue injury & irritation →
leads to inflammation
Inflammation leads to vasodilation, increased
vascular permiability & cellular infiltration
Arterioles at the site of infection constrict initially &
then dilate leading to increased blood flow →
leucocytes escape into tissues by diapedesis →
accumulate in large numbers → attracted by
chemotactic substances at site of injury →
phagocytose microbes
21. INFLAMMATION IS CHARACTERISED BY: PAIN
(DOLOR), REDNESS (RUBOR), HEAT (CALOR),
SWELLING (TUMOR)
Plasma helps in diluting toxic products
Fibrin barrier forms wall around site of infection
22. 5. Fever:
Rise in temperature after infection: helps to accelerate
physiological processes
Fever stimulates production of interferons & helps in
recovery from viral infections
6. Acute phase proteins:
Infection or injury leads to sudden increase in
concentration of certain proteins: called Acute phase
proteins
Eg: C ractive protein (CRP), alpha-1-acid
glycoprotein, mannose binding protein
23. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Resistance that an individual acquires during life
Two types:
o Active immunity
o Passive immunity
Active immunity:
Resistance developed by individual as a result of
antigenic stimulus
Involves active functioning of host’s immune
apparatus to produce antibodies & immunologically
active cells
24. Active immunity sets in after a latent period
During its development, there is often a negative
phase (immunity lower than it was before antigenic
stimulus): because Ag combines with pre-existing Ab
in circulation
Once developed, it is long-lasting
When actively immunised individual encounters
subsequent attack of same Ag, immune response
occurs more quickly (called as secondary response)
Besides cell mediated & humoral immune response, it
is also associated with immunological memory
Active immunisation is more effective & confers
better protection than passive immunisation
25. Passive immunity:
Resistance transmitted passively to recipient in a
readymade form
Recipient’s immune system plays no active role
There is no antigenic stimulus; instead, preformed Ab
are administered
No latent period
No negative phase
Immunity is transient lasting for days or weeks
26.
27. Both Active & Passive immunities are further
classified as Natural & artificial
Natural active immunity:
Results from either clinical or inapparent infection by
a microbe
Eg: person recovered from attack of measles develops
natural active immunity
Such immunity is usually long-lasting but duration
varies with types of pathogen
Immunity is lifelong following many viral diseases
Immunity following bacterial infection is generally
less permanent
28. Artificial active immunity:
Resistance induced by vaccine
Examples of vaccines:
Bacterial vaccines:
o Live (BCG for tuberculosis)
o Killed (Cholera vaccine)
o Subunit (Typhoid Vi antigen)
o Bacterial products (Tetanus toxoid)
Viral vaccines:
o Live (Oral polio vaccine- Sabin)
o Killed (Injectable polio vaccine- Salk)
o Subunit (Hepatitis B vaccine)
29. Live vaccines initiate an infection without causing
any injury or disease
Immunity following live vaccine administration
resembles that following natural infection
Immunity lasts for several years but booster doses
may be required
Live vaccines can be administered orally or
parenterally
Killed vaccines are less immunogenic than live
vaccines, & protection lasts for short period.
Thus, administered repeatedly
30. Natural passive immunity:
Resistance passively transferred from mother to baby
In human infants, maternal Ab are transmitted
predominantly through placenta
In animals such as pigs, Ab are transmitted through
colostrum
Human fetus acquires ability to produce antibodies
from 20th week of life. Till then, maternal Ab give
passive protection against infectious diseases
31. Artificial passive immunity:
Resistance passively transferred to recipient by
administration of Ab
Agents used for this purpose:
- Hyperimmune sera of animal or human origin
- Convalescent sera
- Pooled human gammaglobulin
These are used for prophylaxis & therapy
32. Hyperimmune sera:
Antitetanus serum prepared form hyperimmune
horses
Give temporary protection
Disadvantage: hypersensitivity & immune
elimination
Human hyperimmune globulin: more lasting
protection
Convalescent sera:
Sera of patients recovering from disease
Contains high levels of specific Ab
34. Active immunity Passive immunity
Produced actively by host’s immune
system
Received passively. No active host
participation
Induced by infection or by
immunogens
Readymade Antibody transferred
Durable effective protection Transient, less effective
Immunity effective only after lag
period
Immediate immunity
Immunological memory present No memory
Booster effect on subsequent dose Subsequent dose less effective
Negative phase may occur No negative phase
Not applicable in immunodeficient Applicable in immunodeficient