Human health and disease

Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
muralishingri@gmail.com
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• Yoga has been practised since time
immemorial to achieve physical and mental
health.
• Awareness about diseases and their effect on
different bodily functions, vaccination
(immunisation) against infectious diseases,
proper disposal of wastes, control of vectors
and
• maintenance of hygienic food and water
resources
are necessary for achieving good health.
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• Genetic disorders – inheritable
defects of parents to offspring.
• Infections and
• Life style including food and water
we take, rest and exercise we give to
our bodies, habits that we have or
lack etc.
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• When the functioning of one or more organs or
systems of the body is adversely affected,
characterised by various signs and symptoms,
we say that we are not healthy, i.e., we have a
disease.
• Diseases which are easily transmitted from one
person to another, are called infectious
diseases.
• Among non-infectious diseases, cancer is the
major cause of death.
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Pathogen:
Salmonella typhi.
Symptoms:
High fever, weakness, stomach pain,
constipation, headache and loss of appetite,
intestinal perforation and death may occur in
severe cases. Typhoid fever could be confirmed
by Widal test.
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Mode of transmission:
These pathogens generally enter the small intestine through
contaminated food and water and migrate to other organs
through blood.
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Pneumonia:
• Pathogen:
Streptococcus pneumoniae
and Haemophilus infuenzae.
• Symptoms:
the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to
severe problems in respiration. Symptoms
include fever, chills, cough and headache,
in severe cases the lips and finger nails may
turn gray to bluish in colour.
• Mode of transmission:
transmitted through droplets of
infected persons.
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• Common Cold
• Pathogen:
Rhino viruses.
• Symptoms:
nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat,
hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness.
• Mode of transmission:
through droplets of infected persons.
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DISEASES CAUSED BY PROTOZOANS
• MALARIA: (means bad air)
• Pathogen: Plasmodium. (P.
vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, P.
falciparum)
• Malignant malaria caused by
P. falciparum is fatal.
• Organs affected: liver, RBC.
• Method of transmission: by
biting of female anopheles
mosquito (vector)
• Symptoms: high fever and
chill, fever occurs on every
alternate day, vomiting.Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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• life cycle of malaria
parasite:
• Life cycle of plasmodium
starts with inoculation of
sporozoites (infective
stage) through the bite of
infected female
Anopheles mosquitoes.
• The parasite initially
multiplied within the liver
cells and then attack the
red blood cells (RBCs)
resulting in their rupture
• There is release of a toxic
substance called
hemozoin from the
ruptured RBCs which
responsible for the chill
and high fever.
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• From the infected human the
parasite enters into the body of
Anopheles mosquito during
biting and sucking blood.
• Further development takes place
in the body of Anopheles
mosquitoes.
• The female mosquito takes up
gametocytes with the blood
meal.
• Formation of gametes and
fertilization takes place in the
intestine of mosquito.
• The zygote develops further and
forms thousands of sporozoites
which migrated into the salivary
gland of mosquito.
• When the mosquito bite another
human sporozoites are injected.
• The malarial parasite requires
two hosts – human and
Anopheles, to complete their life
cycle.
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AMOEBIASIS (Amoebic dysentery)
• Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica an
intestinal protozoan parasite.
• Organs affected: large intestine of man
• Method of transmission:
• House fly acts as mechanical carrier.
• As the cysts of pathogen are found in the
intestinal discharge the possibility of
infection to healthy persons is through
contaminated water or improperly
washed or cooked vegetables and fruits.
• The pathogen can also be transmitted
through dirty hands.
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Symptoms:
• This parasite lives in the large intestine
and destroys the mucus membrane.
• This may cause bleeding and ulcer that
produce dysentery.
• Hence patient passes out blood and
mucus with the stool.
• There will be severe pain in abdomen,
fever, nausea and nervessness.
• Stools with excess mucous and blood
clots.
Prevention:
Proper disposal of faecal matter of the
patient. Vegetables and fruits when used
raw, should be thoroughly washed. Water
should be boiled before drinking.
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Immunization:
• By massive immunization there is complete
eradication of disease like smallpox.
• Diseases like polio, diphtheria, pneumonia, and
tetanus have been controlled in large extent.
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• The overall ability of the host to fight the
disease causing organism by immune system
is called immunity.
• There are two types of immunity:
– Innate Immunity.
– Acquired Immunity.
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Innate immunity
It is a non-specific type of defense
mechanism present at the time of birth.
• It has four types of barriers –
Components of first line of defence.
Physical barrier:
• Example, skin covering of the body,
secretion of mucous in the respiratory
tract
Physiological barrier:
• Example, acid in the stomach, tears from
the eyes
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Cellular barrier:
Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of
our body like polymorpho-nuclear
leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils),
monocytes and natural killer cells
(NK,type of lymphocytes) in the blood
as well as macrophages in tissues can
phagocytose and destroy microbes.
Cytokine barrier:
• Example, interferon (They are
proteins released by virus infected
cells that protect other healthy
tissue from getting infected i.e.,
they are antiviral proteins). They
stimulate the unaffected cells to
synthesize proteins which can
interfere with or inhibit viral
replication
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2. Acquired immunity
• It is a specific type of defense mechanism. It
shows two types of responses:
• primary response and secondary response. It
involves two types of lymphocytes –
• B lymphocytes: Show humoral immune
response (HI)
• T lymphocytes: Show cell mediated immunity
(CMI)
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Structure of an Antibody
• The antibodies are
protein molecules called
immunoglobulins and
are of various types like
IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG.
• Each antibody molecule
consists of four
polypeptide chains, two
are long called heavy
chains and other two are
short called light chains.
Both are arranged in the
shape of ‘Y’, hence an
antibody is represented
as H2L2.
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On the basis of production of antibodies, immunity can be further categorised as –
Active immunity:
Body produces its own antibodies
against antigens
Passive immunity:
Readymade antibody is
transferred from one individual to
another
Colostrum (contains antibodies
IgA) is an example of passive
immunity provided by the mother
to her child.
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• Because these antibodies are found in the blood,
the response is also called as humoral immune
response.
• This is one of the two types of our acquired
immune response – antibody mediated.
• The second type is called cell mediated immune
response or cell-mediated immunity (CMI).
• The T-lymphocytes mediate CMI
Auto immunity:
Memory based acquired immunity able to distinguish
foreign molecules or cells (pathogen) from self-cells.
Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown
reasons the body attacks self cells. This results in
damage to the body cells and is called auto-immune
disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis, Multiple sclerosis.Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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• Lymphoid organs:
It acts as the sites of formation and maturation of lymphocytes.
Primary lymphoid organ – where lymphocytes are produced and
matured. Example – Bone marrow and Thymus.
Secondary lymphoid organ– where lymphocytes fight with
antigens. Example - Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer's patches
Mucosal Associated Lymphocyte Tissues (MALT).
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Immune system in our body
• The immune system
consists of
– Lymphoid organs
– Lymphoid tissues
– T and B-cells.
– Antibodies.
• Immune system
recognizes the foreign
antigens, responds to
them and remembers
them.
The immune system also plays important role in:
Allergic reaction
Auto immuno diseases and
Organ transplantation.
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Primary lymphoid organs: bone
marrow and thymus, production
and maturation of lymphocytes
take place.
Secondary lymphoid organs:
spleen, tonsil, lymph node, Payer’s
patches of small intestine and
appendix, where proliferation and
differentiation of lymphocyte take
place.
Bone marrow is the main lymphoid
organ where all blood cell including
lymphocytes are produced.
Thymus is a bilobed organ located
near the heart, beneath the
breastbone.
· T-lymphocytes are produced in
bone marrow but matured in
thymus. Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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The spleen
Large bean shaped organ mainly
contain lymphocytes and phagocytes.
Acts as a filter of the blood by
trapping blood-borne micro-
organisms.
Spleen is also serves as the large
reservoir of erythrocytes.
· Lymph node:
Small solid structure located at
different points along the lymphatic
system.
Traps the micro-organisms or other
foreign antigens.
Antigen trapped into the lymph node
responsible for activation and
differentiation of lymphocytes and
cause immune response. Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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Mucosal associated lymphoid tissues (MALT):
• Located within the lining of major tract (respiratory, digestive
and urinogenital tracts)
• It constitutes 50% of lymphoid tissues.
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Vaccination
It is the protection of the body
from communicable diseases by
administration of agents (called
vaccines) that mimic the
microbes. Vaccines are available
against tetanus, polio, etc.
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Allergies
• Hypersensitivity
to a particular
allergen (such as
pollens, dust) is
termed as allergy.
IgE is an antibody
responsible for
allergy.
• Symptoms include, sneezing, watery eyes, running nose
and difficulty in breathing.
• Allergy is due to secretion of histamine and serotonine by
mast cells.
• Allergy is treated with anti-histamine, adrenaline and
steroids. Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
• Deficiency of
immune system that
acquired during life
time and not
congenital disease.
• Syndrome means a
group of symptoms.
• AIDS was first
reported in 1981.
• AIDS is caused by HIV
(Human Immuno
deficiency Virus)
• HIV is retrovirus,
having RNA as the
genetic material.
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Method of transmission:
• Sexual contact with infected persons.
• Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
• Sharing infected needles as intravenous drug user.
• From infected mother to the foetus through placenta.
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Life cycle of HIV:
• After getting into the body the HIV enters into
macrophages or T-helper cells.
• The viral RNA genome replicated to form viral
DNA with the enzyme called reverse
transcriptase.
• The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host
cell’s DNA by an enzyme called integrase, and
directs the infected cell s to produce virus
particle.
• The macrophage continues to produce virus and
acts as HIV factory.
• Virus released from macrophage attack T-helper
cells.
• There is progressive reduction in the number of
T-helper cells.
• Due to reduction of T-helper cells the person
starts suffering from infections of other virus,
fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
• The patient becomes immuno deficient and
more prone to other disease. Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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Lets see the entry of virus again into blood cell..
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Diagnosis:
ELISA (enzyme linked
Immuno-sorbent assay)
Prevention of AIDS:
AIDS has no cure,
prevention is the best
option.
Safe blood for transfusion
Use of disposable needles
Free distribution of
condoms.
Prevention of drug abuse
Advocating safe sex and
promoting regular checkup.
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CANCER:
• Uncontrolled cell division
leads to production of
mass of cell called cancer.
• Cancerous cell lost the
property of contact
inhibition (Cancerous cells aren't
motivated to change direction upon
contact, so they pile up and grow over
each other.)
• Cancerous cell just
continue to divide giving
rise to masses of cell
called tumors.
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Benign tumors:
Normally remain confined to their
original location
Do not spread to other location.
Cause little damage.
Malignant tumors:
Mass of proliferating cells called
neoplastic or tumor cells.
These cells grow very rapidly.
Invade and damage surrounding
tissues.
These cells actively divide and grow;
they also starve the normal cells.
Cancerous cells escape from the site of
origin and moves to distant place by
blood, wherever they get lodged make
the normal cell cancerous. This
property is called metastasis.
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Causes of cancer
• Normal cells transformed into cancerous
neoplastic cells by physical, chemical and
biological agents. These agents are called
carcinogen.
• Physical agents: ionizing radiation like X-rays,
gamma rays non-ionizing radiations like UV-
rays.
• Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke, sodium
azaide, Methyl ethane sulphonate.
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Biological agents
– Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have a
gene called viral oncogenes, induce transformation of
neoplastic cells.
– Cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes in
normal cells, when activated lead to oncogenic
transformation of the normal cells.
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Cancer detection and diagnosis
• Biopsy and histopathological
study of the tissues
• Radiography like X-rays, CT
(computerized tomography)
• MRI (magnetic resonance
Imaging).
• Presence of antibodies
against cancer-specific
antigen.
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Treatment of cancer
• Surgical – cancerous tissues are
surgically removed.
• Radiotherapy – tumor cells are
irradiated lethally by radiation.
• Chemotherapy – drugs are used
to kill cancerous cells, but shows
side effects like hair loss, anemia,
etc.
• Immunotherapy – patients are
given with alpha-interferon which
activate their immune system and
help in destroying the tumor.
• Cryosurgery
• Laser therapy.
• α-interferone a response
modifier used to detect the
cancer. Muralidhar Shingri M.Sc.,B.Ed.
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Drugs and Alcohol abuse
• Drugs and alcohol abuse includes –
Opioids:
Morphine is obtained from Poppy plant. It is a sedative
(depressant) and pain killer.
Heroin is chemically diacetylmorphine. It slows down body
functions. Example, Heroin (extracted from Papaver somniferum)
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Cannabinoids:
It is obtained from Cannabis sativa.
These are taken by inhalation and oral ingestion,
they affect the cardiovascular system of the body.
Example, marijuana, hashish, charas, ganja
(obtained from ),

Coca alkaloids / Cocaine:
• it is obtained from Erythroxylon coca. It is taken by
smoking. It is a stimulant and activates
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Hallucinogens:
It is obtained from Atropa belladonna and Datura sp.
LSD (Lysergic acid Diethylamide) is obtained from fungus.
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Tobacco:
• it contains nicotine, which is stimulant.
• It stimulates adrenaline and increases the secretion of adrenaline.
• Smoking of tobacco leads to lung cancer, bronchitis, emphysema,
coronary heart diseases.
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Adolescence and Drug abuse
• Adolescence is the period during which the
child becomes matured.
• It is between 12 – 18 years of age.
Causes of drug abuse –
• Curiosity
• Adventure
• Excitement
• Experimentation
• Stress or pressure to excel in examination
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Effects of drug/alcohol abuse
• Reckless behaviour
• Malicious mischief
• Violence
• Drop in academic performance
• Depression, isolation, aggressiveness, etc.
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Prevention and control
• Avoid peer pressure
• Counseling and education
• Take help from teachers, parents
and peers
• Take professional and medical
help
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Thank You
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