This document discusses the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics. It explains that continental drift is the movement of continents across Earth's surface over geologic time. The theory was first proposed in the early 20th century by Alfred Wegener and helped explain the formation of supercontinents like Pangaea and the matching of continental margins. It also introduced the concept of plates and how their movement causes geologic phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes.

1. Continental drift
It is the movement of the Earth's continents
relative to each other by appearing to drift across
the ocean bed. The speculation that continents
might have 'drifted' was first put forward
by Abraham Ortelius in 1596.
The concept was independently (and more
fully) developed in 1912 by German geologist and
meteorologist Alfred Wegener. He first proposed the
theory of continental drift, which states that parts
of the Earth's crust slowly drift atop a liquid core.
The fossil record supports and gives credence to
the theories of continental drift and plate
tectonics.

2. Wegener hypothesized that there
was a gigantic supercontinent 200 million
years ago, which he named Pangaea, meaning
"All-earth“ (in Greek). Pangaea started to
break up into two smaller supercontinents,
called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, during the
Jurassic period. By the end of the Cretaceous
period, the continents were separating into
land masses that look like our modern-day
continents.
Wegener published this theory in his
1915 book, On the Origin of Continents and
Oceans. He was the first to use the phrase
“continental drift”.

3. Fossil Evidence in Support of the Theory

4. Eduard Suess was an Austrian geologist who first
realized that there had once been a land bridge connecting
South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He
named this large land mass Gondwanaland (named after a
district in India where the fossil plant Glossopteris was
found). This was the southern supercontinent formed after
Pangaea broke up during the Jurassic period. Suess based his
deductions on the fossil plant Glossopteris, which is found
throughout India, South America, southern Africa, Australia,
and Antarctica.
Fossils of Mesosaurus (one of the
first marine reptiles, even older
than the dinosaurs) were found in
both South America and South
Africa. These finds, plus the study
of sedimentation and the fossil plant Glossopteris in these
southern continents led Alexander du Toit, a South African
scientist, to bolster the idea of the past existence of a
supercontinent in the southern hemisphere, Eduard
Suess's Gondwanaland. This lent further support to Alfred
Wegener's Continental Drift Theory .

5. Plate tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics (meaning "plate
structure") was developed in the 1960's. This theory
explains the movement of the Earth's plates (which
has since been documented scientifically) and also
explains the cause of earthquakes, volcanoes,
oceanic trenches, mountain range formation, and
other geologic phenomenon.
The plates are moving at a speed that has been
estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year. Most of the Earth's
seismic activity (volcanoes and earthquakes) occurs
at the plate boundaries as they interact.
The top layers of the plates are called the
crust. Oceanic crust (the crust under the oceans) is
thinner and denser than continental crust. Crust is
constantly being created and destroyed, oceanic
crust is more active than continental crust.

6. Types of Plate Movement
Divergent
-When two oceanic plates
move away from each other
which result to formation of
new crust (from magma that
comes out from Earth’s
mantle).
-Divergent takes place at the
boundary of the oceanic
plates and forms new sea
floor. This process is called
sea-floor spreading.
-As magma rises up to the
surface, it piles up and
solidifies, slowly forming a
long chain of mountains on
the ocean floor, called an
oceanic ridge.
-Volcanoes can also form
undersea at these divergent
boundaries, they are called
submarine volcanoes and
have gentle eruptions.

7. Transform A transform plate movement
is one where two plates slide
laterally past each other.
However, movement is not
smooth due to friction between
the rocks of the two
plates. Therefore, sometimes
the two plates would get
'stuck' and lock together.
But since the convection
currents of the underlying
magma are still dragging the
plates, much tension and
pressure is built up at the
transform boundary. When
there is sufficient buildup of
pressure, rocks in the plates
break and get jerked apart.
This results in earthquakes.

8. Convergent
When two plates collide,
some crust is destroyed in
the impact and the plates
become smaller. The
results differ, depending
upon what types of plates
are involved.
When Two Continental
Plates Converge :
one plate will be forced only
slightly under the other, but
no subduction will take
place. Thus, the pressing
together of two plates will
fold the crust and forms
what we known as fold
mountains.
When Two Oceanic Plates
Converge:
Similarly, when one oceanic
plate converge, the other
oceanic plate may subduct
beneath the other. However,
there is no head-on collision
for two oceanic plates.
Magma will then rise up to
form volcanoes.

9. Continental Shelf -It is the extended perimeter
of each continent and
associated coastal plain.
Much of the shelf was
exposed during glacial
periods, but it is now
submerged under relatively
shallow seas and gulfs and
was similarly submerged .
-Continents are the seven
main divisions of land on
Earth. A continental shelf
extends from the coastline
of a continent to a drop-off
point called the shelf break.
From the break, the shelf
descends toward the deep
ocean floor in what is called
the continental slope.
-

10. A mountain range or mountain belt is a geographic area
containing numerous geologically related mountains.
A mountain system or system of mountain ranges sometimes
is used to combine several geological features that are
geographically (regionally) related.
Mountain ranges are usually segmented
by highlands or mountain passes and valleys. Individual
mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily
have the samegeologic structure or petrology. They may be a
mix of different orogenic expressions andterranes, for
example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains,
and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types.
Asia comprehensively leads the list of the highest mountain
ranges in the world. These mountains form the boundary
between theIndian subcontinent and rest of Asia, lying to the
north of Indian subcontinent and the south of rest of Asia.
Mountain Ranges

11. Trenches
In geology, trenches are created
as a result of erosion by rivers or by
geological movement of tectonic plates.
In the civil engineering field of
construction or maintenance of
infrastructure, trenches are created to
install underground infrastructure
or utilities (such as gas mains, water
mains or telephone lines), or later to
search for these installations. Trenches
have often been dug for military
defensive purposes. In archaeology, the
"trench method" is used for searching
and excavating ancient ruins or to dig
into strata of sedimented material.
The deepest ocean depth to be
sounded is in the Challenger Deep of
the Mariana Trench at a depth of 10,911
m (35,798 ft) below sea level.

12. Paleoclimatology
In geology Paleoclimatology is the study of
changes in climate taken on the scale of the
entire history of Earth. It uses a variety
of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences
to obtain data previously preserved within
(e.g.) rocks,sediments, ice sheets, tree
rings, corals, shells and microfossils; it then uses
these records to determine the past states of
the Earth's various climate regions and
its atmospheric system.
Studies of past changes in the environment
and biodiversity often reflect on the current
situation, and specifically the impact of climate
on mass extinctions and biotic recovery.

13. Limitations in Reconstructing Paleoclimates:
The limitations in this process result from
uncertainties associated with dating the proxy indicators
or other evidence.
Two fundamental types of dating:
Identify the actual
geological time represented
by the evidence. Limited
and rely predominately on
evaluating the amount of
decay of naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes.
Differentiate time relative to other
points in time. Stratigraphy establishes
a relative sequence of events or
characteristics within which the
evidence lies. If this same sequence can
be identified in multiple locations it can
be used to establish the relationship
between locations and the relative
timing of the indicators.
Absolute Dating Relative Dating

14. Causes of Paleoclimatic change
Climate change is always occurring, and that it
occurs at all time scales.
In this discussion, we will start with the most
ancient changes and move to the more recent changes. Of
course, much of what follows is speculation and our
picture will undoubtedly change as new paleo-
climatological techniques are developed.
Although the basic causes of climate change are
still not fully understood, many clues have been collected.
Possible causes include:
*Changes in solar output
*Changes in Earth's orbit
*Changes in the distribution of continents
*Changes in the concentration of Greenhouse Gases in the
atmosphere

15. Paleoclimatic Evidences
1.0 Fit of the Continents - Noted the similarity in the coastlines
of North and South America and Europe and Africa.
2.0 Fossil Similarities - Mesosaurus, reptile similar to modern
alligator which lived in shallow waters of South America and
Africa.
3.0 Rock Similarities
3.1Rocks of same age juxtaposed across ocean
basins.
3.2 Termination of mountain chains
4.0 Paleoclimatic Evidence of
4.1 Glacial deposits at equator
4.2 Coral reefs in Antarctica

16. Fossil Evidence:
If you look at the fossil record, you find a
succession of organisms that suggest a history of
incremental development from one species to another.
You see very simple organisms at first and then new,
more complex organisms appearing over time. The
characteristics of newer organisms frequently appear
to be modified forms of characteristics of older
organisms.
The fossil record provides snapshots of the past
that, when assembled, illustrate a panorama of
evolutionary change over the past four billion years.
The picture may be smudged in places and may have
bits missing, but fossil evidence clearly shows that
life is old and has changed over time.

17. Magnetism and Paleomagnetism:
Earth is a bar magnet with a magnetic north
and south. At poles a compass needle dips
vertically. Downward at the north pole, upward at
the south pole and horizontal at the equator.
Magnetic poles do not correspond with geographic
poles. Variation is termed the magnetic
declination. It is 16 degrees east in California.
However, it has been found that even though
the magnetic and geographic poles do not
correspond today when the location of the
magnetic north pole is averaged over a 5,000 year
period it does correspond with geographic north.
Magnetic pole moves as much as 25 km per year.

18. Causes of Earth's Magnetism:
1.0 First thought to be the result of a
permanently magnetized core. However, it has been
shown that when any substance is heated above
500 degrees C it looses its permanent magnetism.
2.0 Earth is a Dynamo - Outer core is a fluid
consisting largely of iron, so it is an excellent
conductor. Electromagnetic currents are generated
and amplified by motion within the liquid caused by
convection. Rotation of the Earth unifies the
random convective movements generating the
magnetic field.

19. Paleomagnetism:
In the 1950's scientists discover how to measure
paleomagnetism (magnetism frozen in the rock at the
time it formed). With this knowledge scientists could
tell the direction and latitude of geomagnetic pole at
the time the rock formed. Europeans were the first to
extensively study paleomagnetic pole locations and
found that by 500 MY ago magnetic north was located
near Hawaii. At first it was assumed the poles were
free to wander (Apparent Polar Wandering). North
American geologists attempted similar studies largely
to disprove the Europeans and found that 500 my ago
North American rocks showed the magnetic north pole
to be in the East Pacific, 3000 miles to the west of the
European magnetic north at that time.

20. A geologic process in
which one edge of one crustal
plate is forced below the edge
of another.
The process by which
collision of the earth's crustal
plates results in one plate's
being drawn down or
overridden by another,
localized along the juncture
(subduc′tion zone`) of two
plates.
The denser of the two
plates sinks beneath the other.
As it descends, the plate often
generates seismic and volcanic
activity (from melting and
upward migration of magma) in
the overriding plate.

21. It is the concerted, collective movement of ensembles
of molecules within fluids (e.g., liquids, gases) and rheids.
Convection of mass cannot take place in solids, since neither
bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in
solids. Diffusion of heat can take place in solids, but is
referred to separately in that case as heat conduction.
Convective heat transfer is one of the major modes of heat
transfer and convection is also a major mode of mass
transfer in fluids. Convective heat and mass transfer take
place through both diffusion – the random Brownian motion of
individual particles in the fluid – and by advection, in which
matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of
currents in the fluid.

22. Cliff Valley
A high steep rock especially one facing the
sea. It runs along the sea shore and has the
strata exposed.

23. When rocks are deformed plastically
are bent into fold .The term fold is used
in geology when one or a stack of
originally flat, level surfaces, such as
sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as
a result of pressure.
Folding
Stress is the applied force (The pushing
and pulling on the rock layers).
Strain is the bending & twisting that
happens to the rock also known as
deformation.

24. Monocline:
This is when
the rock layer
has a gently
dipping bend
in the
horizontal
rock layer.
3 Main types of Fold

25. Anticlines:
This is when
layers are folded
upwards in what
looks like an arch.
The layers are
symmetrical (look
alike) to either
side of its center.
Rock layers in
anticlines dip
away from the
center axis. The
oldest rocks are
exposed on the
center axis.
Synclines:
This is when the rock layers are folded
downward. The youngest layers of rock
are exposed on the center axis.

26. Fault
When rocks are deformed (broken), britty and
displaced along fractures.
It is often caused by earthquake (seismic
and volcanic).
Breaks in rocks are put in 2 categories:
Fractures-when there is no movement
along either side of the rock break.
Fault-when either side of the rock break
moves in opposite direction.

27. Fault Terminology
1)"Hanging Wall"-
The surface of
block that is on
top of the plane
of the fault.
2)"Footwall"- The
surface or block
that lies below
the plane of the
fault.

28. 3) "Strike"- The
direction in
which the fault
runs. Two layers
of rock are
shifted
horizontally or
parallel to the
fault plane.
4) "Dip"- The dip
direction is
perpendicular to
the strike
direction

29. 2 Types of Dip-Slip Fault
Normal Fault: The hanging
wall has slipped down in
comparison to the foot wall.
Gravity causes the hanging
wall to slip down. Normal
Faults are from layers
being pulled apart.
Also known as a GRAVITY
FAULT.
Reverse Fault:The
hanging wall has slipped
up in comparison to the
foot wall. When layers
are pushed together this
is the kind of fault that
occurs. Also known as
a THRUST FAULT.

30. Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as
a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the Earth's crust that
creates seismic waves.
The seismicity, seismism or seismic activity of an
area refers to the frequency, type and size of
earthquakes experienced over a period of time.
Earthquakes are measured using observations
from seismometers. The moment magnitude is the
most common scale on which earthquakes larger
than approximately 5 are reported for the entire
globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than
magnitude 5 reported by national seismological
observatories are measured mostly on the local
magnitude scale, also referred to as
the Richter scale.

31. Landslide
A landslide or landslip is a geological
phenomenon which includes a wide range of
ground movement, such as rockfalls, deep
failure of slopes and shallow debris flows,
which can occur in offshore, coastal and
onshore environments. Although the action
of gravity is the primary driving force for a
landslide to occur, there are other contributing
factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up
specific sub-surface conditions that make the
area/slope prone to failure, whereas the actual
landslide often requires a trigger before being
released.

32. Soil Compaction
It is the process in which a stress applied to a
soil causes densification as air is displaced from the
pores between the soil grains. When stress is applied
that causes densification due to water (or other liquid)
being displaced from between the soil grains
then consolidation, not compaction, has occurred.
Normally, compaction is the result of heavy machinery
compressing the soil, but it can also occur due to the
passage of (e.g.) animal feet.
In soil science and agronomy soil compaction is
usually a combination of both engineering compaction
and consolidation, so may occur due to a lack of water
in the soil, the applied stress being internal suction
due to water evaporation as well as due to passage of
animal feet.

33. Affected soils become less able to
absorb rainfall, thus increasing runoff and erosion.
Plants have difficulty in compacted soil because
the mineral grains are pressed together, leaving little
space for air and water, which are essential
for root growth. Burrowing animals also find it a
hostile environment, because the denser soil is more
difficult to penetrate. The ability of a soil to recover
from this type of compaction depends on climate,
mineralogy and fauna. Soils with high shrink-swell
capacity, such as vertisols, recover quickly from
compaction where moisture conditions are variable
(dry spells shrink the soil, causing it to crack). But
clays which do not crack as they dry cannot recover
from compaction on their own unless they host
ground-dwelling animals such as earthworms.

34. 5 Techniques of Soil Compaction
Static - a large stress is slowly applied to the soil and then
released.
Impact - the stress is applied by dropping a large mass onto the
surface of the soil.
Vibrating - a stress is applied repeatedly and rapidly via a
mechanically driven plate or hammer. Often combined with
rolling compaction.
Gyrating - a static stress is applied and maintained in one
direction while the soil is a subjected to a gyratory motion about
the axis of static loading. Limited to laboratory applications.
Rolling - a heavy cylinder is rolled over the surface of the soil.
Commonly used on sports pitches. Roller-compactors are often
fitted with vibratory devices to enhance their ability.
Kneading - shear is applied by alternating movement in adjacent
positions. An example, combined with rolling compaction, is the
'sheeps foot' roller used in waste compaction at landfills.

35. Soil Liquefaction
Describes a phenomenon where by a saturated
or partially saturated soil substantially loses
strength and stiffness in response to an
applied stress, usually earthquake shaking or other
sudden change in stress condition, causing it to
behave like a liquid.
In soil mechanics the term "liquefied" was
first used by Hazen in reference to the 1918 failure
of the Calaveras Dam in California. He described the
mechanism of flow liquefaction of the embankment
dam as follows:

36. If the pressure of the water in the pores is great
enough to carry all the load, it will have the effect of
holding the particles apart and of producing a condition
that is practically equivalent to that of quicksand… the
initial movement of some part of the material might
result in accumulating pressure, first on one point, and
then on another, successively, as the early points of
concentration were liquefied.
The phenomenon is most often observed in
saturated, loose (low density or uncompacted), sandy
soils. This is because a loose sand has a tendency
to compress when a load is applied; dense sands by
contrast tend to expand in volume or 'dilate'. If the soil is
saturated by water, a condition that often exists when
the soil is below the ground water table or sea level, then
water fills the gaps between soil grains ('pore spaces').
In response to the soil compressing, this water increases
in pressure and attempts to flow out.

37. Tsunami
TSU-Harbor / NAMI-Wave (Kanji-Japanese)
The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami was among the deadliest
natural disasters in human history with over 230,000 people
killed in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean.

38. It is a series of water waves caused by the
displacement of a large volume of a body of water, generally
an ocean or a large lake, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and other underwater explosions (including
detonations of underwater nuclear devices),
landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other
disturbances above or below water all have the potential to
generate a tsunami.
Tsunami waves do not resemble normal sea waves,
because their wavelength is far longer. Rather than
appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead
initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason
they are often referred to as tidal waves. Tsunamis generally
consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from
minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train". Wave
heights of 10 meters can be generated by large events.
Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas,
their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect
entire ocean basins.

39. Plants Impact on Environment
Maintains
Biodiversity
Green House
Gases
Neutralizer
Aides for soil compaction
Provides
Oxygen
Gives
Medicine
Provides Nutrition
Tool for
Economic
Growth

40. Human Impact on Enviroment
# Literally connoted as pigs
(baboy sa gawain).
# We are the producer of all
pollutions due to population
growth & industrialization
(aerial, water & land), acid rains
(burning of fossil fuel that
release nitrates & sulphates).
# Guilty of deforestation (lost of
biodiversity, oxygen & natural
habitats), Ozone depletion
(ozone layer was disappearing),
and extinction of other nature
species (endangered animals)
-Contributes to Global Warming
and Climate Change.