This document presents a new intensity formula for optical emission spectroscopy that has been applied to stellar spectra. The formula relates spectral line intensity to wavelength, frequency, electron temperature, and ionization energies. The author analyzed spectra from the literature for 17 elements and 11 ions and found linear relationships between the logarithm of intensity and the inverse of frequency times ionization energies, supporting the new formula. Stellar spectra from classes O-M were also analyzed and found to follow similar linear relationships, allowing the determination of electron temperatures, mean ionization energies, and effective temperatures for different stellar classes. Intensity ratios of Balmer lines from various stars correlated well between theoretical predictions using the formula and experimental measurements.
Stellar Measurements with the New Intensity FormulaIOSR Journals
In this paper a linear relationship in stellar optical spectra has been found by using a
spectroscopical method used on optical light sources where it is possible to organize atomic and ionic data.
This method is based on a new intensity formula in optical emission spectroscopy (OES). Like the HR-diagram ,
it seems to be possible to organize the luminosity of stars from different spectral classes. From that organization
it is possible to determine the temperature , density and mass of stars by using the new intensity formula. These
temperature, density and mass values agree well with literature values. It is also possible to determine the mean
electron temperature of the optical layers (photospheres) of the stars as it is for atoms in the for laboratory
plasmas. The mean value of the ionization energies of the different elements of the stars has shown to be very
significant for each star. This paper also shows that the hydrogen Balmer absorption lines in the stars follow
the new intensity formula.
Consequencies of the new intensity formula in many optical spectroscopy fieldsIOSR Journals
This paper is an extended review paper about the use of a new intensity formula in optical emission spectroscopy, atmospheric physics and astronomy. The laboratory data of atomic- and ionic spectra from different light sources do support the new formula. In the atmospheric field dominant light mechanisms in aurora have been revealed, which follow the new formula. The inverse of this formula can also be used to show the photoelectric effect for many elements. In astronomy new methods have been developed of determining electron- and effective temperature, density and mass of stars with the new formula as a basis, which are in accordance with literature values. An investigation of the Balmer lines in the sun shows that they do follow the new formula. Therefore the new formula is important in the sun and the stars.
By using the anharmonic correlated einstein model to define the expressions o...Premier Publishers
By using potential effective interaction in the anharmonic correlated Einstein model on the basis of quantum statistical theory with phonon interaction procedure, the expressions describing asymmetric component (cumulants) and thermodynamic parameters including the anharmonic effects contributions and by new structural parameters of cubic crystals have been formulated. These new parameters describe the distribution of atoms. The expansion of cumulants and thermodynamic parameters through new structural parameters has been performed. The results of this study show that, developing further the anharmonic correlated Einstein model it obtained a general theory for calculation cumulants and thermodynamic parameters in XAFS theory including anharmonic contributions. The expressions are described through new structural parameters that agree with structural contributions of cubic crystals like face center cubic (fcc), body center cubic (bcc).
Heat Capacity of BN and GaN binary semiconductor under high Pressure-Temperat...IOSR Journals
In this paper, we have calculated the molar heat capacity for cubic zinc blende (cZB) BN and GaN binary semiconductors at high pressure-temperature (PT). For the calculation of heat capacity, we firstly obtained the Debye temperature (ϴD) variation with temperature and at higher temperature it becomes constant with temperature in quasi-harmonic approximation limits. We have also calculated the static Debye temperature (ϴD) from elastic constant for the both BN and GaN binary semiconductors. The elastic constants are calculated from the energy-strain relation using plane wave method in DFT approach. All the calculated results are well consistence with experimental and reported data
Stellar Measurements with the New Intensity FormulaIOSR Journals
In this paper a linear relationship in stellar optical spectra has been found by using a
spectroscopical method used on optical light sources where it is possible to organize atomic and ionic data.
This method is based on a new intensity formula in optical emission spectroscopy (OES). Like the HR-diagram ,
it seems to be possible to organize the luminosity of stars from different spectral classes. From that organization
it is possible to determine the temperature , density and mass of stars by using the new intensity formula. These
temperature, density and mass values agree well with literature values. It is also possible to determine the mean
electron temperature of the optical layers (photospheres) of the stars as it is for atoms in the for laboratory
plasmas. The mean value of the ionization energies of the different elements of the stars has shown to be very
significant for each star. This paper also shows that the hydrogen Balmer absorption lines in the stars follow
the new intensity formula.
Consequencies of the new intensity formula in many optical spectroscopy fieldsIOSR Journals
This paper is an extended review paper about the use of a new intensity formula in optical emission spectroscopy, atmospheric physics and astronomy. The laboratory data of atomic- and ionic spectra from different light sources do support the new formula. In the atmospheric field dominant light mechanisms in aurora have been revealed, which follow the new formula. The inverse of this formula can also be used to show the photoelectric effect for many elements. In astronomy new methods have been developed of determining electron- and effective temperature, density and mass of stars with the new formula as a basis, which are in accordance with literature values. An investigation of the Balmer lines in the sun shows that they do follow the new formula. Therefore the new formula is important in the sun and the stars.
By using the anharmonic correlated einstein model to define the expressions o...Premier Publishers
By using potential effective interaction in the anharmonic correlated Einstein model on the basis of quantum statistical theory with phonon interaction procedure, the expressions describing asymmetric component (cumulants) and thermodynamic parameters including the anharmonic effects contributions and by new structural parameters of cubic crystals have been formulated. These new parameters describe the distribution of atoms. The expansion of cumulants and thermodynamic parameters through new structural parameters has been performed. The results of this study show that, developing further the anharmonic correlated Einstein model it obtained a general theory for calculation cumulants and thermodynamic parameters in XAFS theory including anharmonic contributions. The expressions are described through new structural parameters that agree with structural contributions of cubic crystals like face center cubic (fcc), body center cubic (bcc).
Heat Capacity of BN and GaN binary semiconductor under high Pressure-Temperat...IOSR Journals
In this paper, we have calculated the molar heat capacity for cubic zinc blende (cZB) BN and GaN binary semiconductors at high pressure-temperature (PT). For the calculation of heat capacity, we firstly obtained the Debye temperature (ϴD) variation with temperature and at higher temperature it becomes constant with temperature in quasi-harmonic approximation limits. We have also calculated the static Debye temperature (ϴD) from elastic constant for the both BN and GaN binary semiconductors. The elastic constants are calculated from the energy-strain relation using plane wave method in DFT approach. All the calculated results are well consistence with experimental and reported data
This is the plenary talk given by Prof Shyue Ping Ong at the 57th Sanibel Symposium held on St Simon's Island in Georgia, USA.
Abstract: Powered by methodological breakthroughs and computing advances, electronic structure methods have today become an indispensable toolkit in the materials designer’s arsenal. In this talk, I will discuss two emerging trends that holds the promise to continue to push the envelope in computational design of materials. The first trend is the development of robust software and data frameworks for the automatic generation, storage and analysis of materials data sets. The second is the advent of reliable central materials data repositories, such as the Materials Project, which provides the research community with efficient access to large quantities of property information that can be mined for trends or new materials. I will show how we have leveraged on these new tools to accelerate discovery and design in energy and structural materials as well as our efforts in contributing back to the community through further tool or data development. I will also provide my perspective on future challenges in high-throughput computational materials design.
An excited state of 12C having excitation energy (Ex) 9.65 ± 0.02 MeV and width (FWHM) 607 ± 55 keV, which decays to three particles via Hoyle state (Ex = 7.65 MeV), has been directly identified in the exclusive inelastic scattering of 60 MeV 4He on 12C, measured in coincidence with the recoiling 12C Hoyle state (decaying mostly as 12C* → 8Begs + α → α + α + α) by event-by-event kinematic reconstruction of the completely detected (4) events. This state is likely to be a candidate for 22 + first excited of Hoyle state.
Hysteresis Loops for Magnetoelectric Multiferroics Using Landau-Khalatnikov T...IJECEIAES
We present a theoretical discussion of the hysteresis in magnetoelectric multiferroics with bi-quadratic magnetoelectric coupling. The calculations were performed by employing Landau-Khalatnikov equation of motion for both the ferroelectric and ferromagnetic phase, then solve it simultaneously. In magnetoelectric, we obtain four types of hysteresis: ferroelectric hysteresis, ferromagnetic hysteresis and two types of cross hysteresis (electric field versus magnetization and magnetic field versus electric polarization). The cross hysteresis has butterfly shape which agree with the result from the previous research. It can also be seen from that hysteresis, that magnetization / electric polarization can not be flipped into the opposite direction using external electric / magnetic field when the magnetoelectric coupling is bi-quadratic type. Overall, the result shows that LandauKhalatnikov equation is able to approximate hysteresis loops in multiferroics system.
Natural Convection and Entropy Generation in Γ-Shaped Enclosure Using Lattice...A Behzadmehr
This work presents a numerical analysis of entropy generation in Γ-Shaped enclosure that was submitted to the natural convection process using a simple thermal lattice Boltzmann method (TLBM) with the Boussinesq approximation. A 2D thermal lattice Boltzmann method with 9 velocities, D2Q9, is used to solve the thermal flow problem. The simulations are performed at a constant Prandtl number (Pr = 0.71) and Rayleigh numbers ranging from 103 to 106 at the macroscopic scale (Kn = 10-4). In every case, an appropriate value of the characteristic velocity is chosen using a simple model based on the kinetic theory. By considering the obtained dimensionless velocity and temperature values, the distributions of entropy generation due to heat transfer and fluid friction are determined. It is found that for an enclosure with high value of Rayleigh number (i.e., Ra=105), the total entropy generation due to fluid friction and total Nu number increases with decreasing the aspect ratio.
Transient Numerical Analysis of Induction Heating of Graphite Cruciable at Di...ijeljournal
Mathematical modeling of Induction heating process is done by using 2D axisymmetric geometry.
Induction heating is coupled field problem that includes electromagnetism and heat transfer. Mathematical
modeling of electromagnetism and heat transfer is done by using maxwell equations and classical heat
transfer equation respectively. Temperature dependent material properties are used for this analysis. This
analysis includes coil voltage distribution, crucible electromagnetic power, and coil equivalent impedance
at different frequency. Induction coil geometry effect on supply voltage is also analyzed. This analysis is
useful for designing of induction coil for melting of nonferrous metal such as gold, silver, uranium etc.
Analytical, Numerical and Experimental Validation of Coil Voltage in Inductio...ijeljournal
This paper presents, mathematical model of induction heating process by using analytical and numerical methods. In analytical method, series equivalent circuit (SEC) is used to represent induction coil and work piece. Induction coil and workpiece parameters (resistance and reactance) are calculated by standard formulas along with Nagaoka correction factors and Bessel functions. In Numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation is done and finite element method (FEM) is used to solve the field equations. Analytically and numerically computed parameters such as equivalent coil resistance, reactance, coil voltage, work piece power are compared and found that they are in good agreement. Analytically and numerically obtained coil voltages at different frequencies are validated by experimental results. This mathematical model is useful for coil design and optimization of induction heating process.
Analytical, Numerical and Experimental Validation of Coil Voltage in Inductio...ijeljournal
This paper presents, mathematical model of induction heating process by using analytical and numerical methods. In analytical method, series equivalent circuit (SEC) is used to represent induction coil and work piece. Induction coil and workpiece parameters (resistance and reactance) are calculated by standard formulas along with Nagaoka correction factors and Bessel functions. In Numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation is done and finite element method (FEM) is used to solve the field equations. Analytically and numerically computed parameters such as equivalent coil resistance, reactance, coil voltage, work piece power are compared and found that they are in good agreement. Analytically and numerically obtained coil voltages at different frequencies are validated by experimental results. This mathematical model is useful for coil design and optimization of induction heating process.
This is the plenary talk given by Prof Shyue Ping Ong at the 57th Sanibel Symposium held on St Simon's Island in Georgia, USA.
Abstract: Powered by methodological breakthroughs and computing advances, electronic structure methods have today become an indispensable toolkit in the materials designer’s arsenal. In this talk, I will discuss two emerging trends that holds the promise to continue to push the envelope in computational design of materials. The first trend is the development of robust software and data frameworks for the automatic generation, storage and analysis of materials data sets. The second is the advent of reliable central materials data repositories, such as the Materials Project, which provides the research community with efficient access to large quantities of property information that can be mined for trends or new materials. I will show how we have leveraged on these new tools to accelerate discovery and design in energy and structural materials as well as our efforts in contributing back to the community through further tool or data development. I will also provide my perspective on future challenges in high-throughput computational materials design.
An excited state of 12C having excitation energy (Ex) 9.65 ± 0.02 MeV and width (FWHM) 607 ± 55 keV, which decays to three particles via Hoyle state (Ex = 7.65 MeV), has been directly identified in the exclusive inelastic scattering of 60 MeV 4He on 12C, measured in coincidence with the recoiling 12C Hoyle state (decaying mostly as 12C* → 8Begs + α → α + α + α) by event-by-event kinematic reconstruction of the completely detected (4) events. This state is likely to be a candidate for 22 + first excited of Hoyle state.
Hysteresis Loops for Magnetoelectric Multiferroics Using Landau-Khalatnikov T...IJECEIAES
We present a theoretical discussion of the hysteresis in magnetoelectric multiferroics with bi-quadratic magnetoelectric coupling. The calculations were performed by employing Landau-Khalatnikov equation of motion for both the ferroelectric and ferromagnetic phase, then solve it simultaneously. In magnetoelectric, we obtain four types of hysteresis: ferroelectric hysteresis, ferromagnetic hysteresis and two types of cross hysteresis (electric field versus magnetization and magnetic field versus electric polarization). The cross hysteresis has butterfly shape which agree with the result from the previous research. It can also be seen from that hysteresis, that magnetization / electric polarization can not be flipped into the opposite direction using external electric / magnetic field when the magnetoelectric coupling is bi-quadratic type. Overall, the result shows that LandauKhalatnikov equation is able to approximate hysteresis loops in multiferroics system.
Natural Convection and Entropy Generation in Γ-Shaped Enclosure Using Lattice...A Behzadmehr
This work presents a numerical analysis of entropy generation in Γ-Shaped enclosure that was submitted to the natural convection process using a simple thermal lattice Boltzmann method (TLBM) with the Boussinesq approximation. A 2D thermal lattice Boltzmann method with 9 velocities, D2Q9, is used to solve the thermal flow problem. The simulations are performed at a constant Prandtl number (Pr = 0.71) and Rayleigh numbers ranging from 103 to 106 at the macroscopic scale (Kn = 10-4). In every case, an appropriate value of the characteristic velocity is chosen using a simple model based on the kinetic theory. By considering the obtained dimensionless velocity and temperature values, the distributions of entropy generation due to heat transfer and fluid friction are determined. It is found that for an enclosure with high value of Rayleigh number (i.e., Ra=105), the total entropy generation due to fluid friction and total Nu number increases with decreasing the aspect ratio.
Transient Numerical Analysis of Induction Heating of Graphite Cruciable at Di...ijeljournal
Mathematical modeling of Induction heating process is done by using 2D axisymmetric geometry.
Induction heating is coupled field problem that includes electromagnetism and heat transfer. Mathematical
modeling of electromagnetism and heat transfer is done by using maxwell equations and classical heat
transfer equation respectively. Temperature dependent material properties are used for this analysis. This
analysis includes coil voltage distribution, crucible electromagnetic power, and coil equivalent impedance
at different frequency. Induction coil geometry effect on supply voltage is also analyzed. This analysis is
useful for designing of induction coil for melting of nonferrous metal such as gold, silver, uranium etc.
Analytical, Numerical and Experimental Validation of Coil Voltage in Inductio...ijeljournal
This paper presents, mathematical model of induction heating process by using analytical and numerical methods. In analytical method, series equivalent circuit (SEC) is used to represent induction coil and work piece. Induction coil and workpiece parameters (resistance and reactance) are calculated by standard formulas along with Nagaoka correction factors and Bessel functions. In Numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation is done and finite element method (FEM) is used to solve the field equations. Analytically and numerically computed parameters such as equivalent coil resistance, reactance, coil voltage, work piece power are compared and found that they are in good agreement. Analytically and numerically obtained coil voltages at different frequencies are validated by experimental results. This mathematical model is useful for coil design and optimization of induction heating process.
Analytical, Numerical and Experimental Validation of Coil Voltage in Inductio...ijeljournal
This paper presents, mathematical model of induction heating process by using analytical and numerical methods. In analytical method, series equivalent circuit (SEC) is used to represent induction coil and work piece. Induction coil and workpiece parameters (resistance and reactance) are calculated by standard formulas along with Nagaoka correction factors and Bessel functions. In Numerical method, magnetic vector potential formulation is done and finite element method (FEM) is used to solve the field equations. Analytically and numerically computed parameters such as equivalent coil resistance, reactance, coil voltage, work piece power are compared and found that they are in good agreement. Analytically and numerically obtained coil voltages at different frequencies are validated by experimental results. This mathematical model is useful for coil design and optimization of induction heating process.
IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry (IOSR-JAC) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of applied chemistry and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Chemical Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering(IOSR-JECE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of electronics and communication engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in electronics and communication engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering(IOSR-JECE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of electronics and communication engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in electronics and communication engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences(IOSR-JPBS) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Pharmacy and Biological Science. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Pharmacy and Biological Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Design of Non-Uniform Linear Antenna Arrays Using Dolph- Chebyshev and Binomi...IJERA Editor
This paper explores the analytical methods of synthesizing linear antenna arrays. The synthesis employed is
based on non-uniform methods. In particular, the Dolph-Chebyshev and binomial methods are used, so as to
improve the directivity of the array and to reduce the level of the secondary lobes by adjusting the geometrical
and electric parameters of the array. The radiation patterns, the directivity, and the array factors of the uniform
and the non-uniform methods are presented. It is shown that the Chebyshev arrays have better directivity than
binomial arrays for the same number of elements and separation distance, while binomial arrays have very low
side lobes compared with Chebyshev and uniform excitation arrays. Finally, numerical results of both methods
are analyzed and compared.
The Propagation and Power Deposition of Electron Cyclotron Waves in Non-Circu...IJERA Editor
By solving the plasma equilibrium equation, ray equations, and quasi-linear Fokker-Planck equation, the ray
trajectories and power deposition of EC wave has been numerically simulated in non-circular HL-2A tokamak
plasma. The results show that shaping effect and temperature profile has little influence on ECRH, while plasma
density affect propagation and power deposition obviously. when the ordinary mode of EC waves are launched
from the mid-plane and low-field-side, ray trajectories are bended as the parallel refractive index increases and
even recurve to the low-field side when the parallel refractive index reaches to a certain value. Single absorption
decreases with increasing both poloidal and toroidal injection angle, and can be 100% when poloidal injection
angle is 180o and toroidal injection angle is less than 10o.
General Chemistry I - CHEM 181Critical Thinking Exercise.docxbudbarber38650
General Chemistry I - CHEM 181
Critical Thinking Exercise #3
Due Thursday, Oct. 24
Name_________________________
Section _______
Why do excited hydrogen atoms emit only specific wavelengths of light?
Introduction
In the 1800’s scientists discovered that a glass cylinder containing a low pressure of a gas will emit light when high voltage electricity is applied to metal electrodes inserted at opposite ends of the cylinder. This principal is used in fluorescent lighting today. When the light emitted by a particular gas, for instance hydrogen, was analyzed by passing it through a prism, scientists were surprised to find that only a few specific wavelengths of visible light were emitted, rather than a continuous range of wavelengths. This mystery took over 70 years to fully solve.
wavelength, (nm)
Infrared
Ultraviolet (uv)
Over time, scientists discovered that the wavelengths of radiation emitted by hydrogen extended from the ultraviolet through the visible into the infrared, microwave, and radio wave portions of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. There appeared to be a pattern in the wavelengths that consisted of a series of series of lines. The first 4 series starting from the shortest wavelength line are named for the people that discovered them.
In 1885 J.J. Balmer discovered a mathematical pattern in the wavelengths emitted by hydrogen in the visible and near ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum:
Each allowed value for n plugged into this equation produces one of the wavelengths of light emitted by hydrogen in the region of the spectrum that Balmer studied.
Five years later another scientist, Johannes Rydberg, extended this equation so that it could predict all of the wavelengths emitted by hydrogen in all regions of the electromagnetic spectrum:
(eq. 1)
This equation contains two integers that must be greater than zero and the value of n must be greater than the value of m. The way it works is that the value of m specifies the series, e.g. m = 3 is necessary to generate the wavelengths observed in the Paschen series and n = 4,5,6… will generate the wavelengths emitted within that series. The constant R is known as the Rydberg constant.
Though the equations from Balmer and Rydberg demonstrated mathematical skill, they did not answer the big question on the minds of many scientists: Why do the atoms of hydrogen in the gas phase emit only certain wavelengths of radiation and why do the wavelengths have the pattern described by these clever equations. As it turned out, the solution to this riddle completely altered civilization on this planet.
Part I – Putting together pieces of the puzzle
Part of the reason that it took so long to solve hydrogen line spectrum puzzle was that scientists at the time had an incomplete understanding of light. Specifically, they were not aware of any relationship between the energy of light and the wavelength. It was assumed that the ene.
FOR HUMANITY: (V4) A BREAKTHROUGH IN TOKAMAK APPLIED PHYSICS GRAVITATIONAL WA...GLOBAL HEAVYLIFT HOLDINGS
To whom it may concern: (Note: Abbreviated acknowledgement narrative by Dr. Andrew W. Beckwith )
The author, Dr. Andrew Beckwith, authorizes Myron D. Stokes, Publisher, eMOTION! REPORTS.com, a legacy automotive/aerospace research and analysis site and Managing Director, Global HeavyLift Holdings, Inc., a Defense Logistics Agency listed Federal Contractor, as to the dissemination of the following Tokamak applied physics notes for Gravitational wave generation, as his acting manager of public release of the aforementioned document. The information within will be peer reviewed , but the basic technology is intended for humankind as far as fundamental physics advancement world wide.
The notes, within, were created by Dr. Beckwith, in the Keyuan Hotel in room 1205, in Chongqing, PRC, as part of a joint USA-PRC endeavor as to GW physics; the notes are correctly identified by Gary Stephenson , as a civilian employee of the US air force, as pertinent to " Higher drift current during fusion burning" as an enabler of high GW amplitudes, of the order of h ~ 10^-25 to 10^-26 which are candidates for testing of GW direct identification technology incurrent development in both PRC and in America. The notes were also written up as of November 4 to November 12, in an eight day period, in room 1205 of the Keyuan hotel as of Chongqing University under the auspices of Chongqing University department of physics, in work which was enabled by the hospitality of Chongqing University which took unusually comprehensive steps as to the proper circumstances for the creation of this work so cited by the Author.
The following individuals should be thanked as far as their discussions and input as to formation of the "Higher drift current during fusion burning" which is crucial to the development of this material.
a. Dr. Fangyu Li, whose interest in Tokamak physics never flagged, as to its utilization. He informed the author during a stay from November 2 to November 13 of his partnership with a Tokamak fusion laboratory as of Hefei, PRC, which would serve as a test bed of GW amplitudes. His physics questions were timelyand very important during the 12 days of stay in Chongqing University.
b. Dr. Fan, Chief scientific administrator of Chongqing University wrote in administrative authorization of Dr. Beckwith's visit to Chongqing University and also as part of a 40 year friendship with Dr. Li, accompanied Dr. Li to the Tokamak fusion laboratory as of Hefei, PRC, which the author saw in photographs as to the facility, and the chief engineering officer who runs the Hefei Tokamak facility
The above written statement should be part of a slide share release of this basic information as set up by Myron D. Stokes, of Global Heavylift Holdings corporation without further delay.
Andrew Beckwith, PhD, written in Setauket, New York, as of 6 PM, November 16 ( November 17, PRC time, Chongqing), 2013
In this paper we study the effect of temperature, magnetic field, and exchange coupling on the thermal entanglement in a spin chain which consist of two qubits and one qutrit. We use negativity as a measure of entanglement in our study. We apply magnetic field, uniform and nonuniform field, on it. The results show that the entanglement decreases with increase in temperature. Also, we have found that under a magnetic field, either uniform or nonuniform, in constant temperature, the entanglement decreases. We have found that increasing exchange coupling of any two particles decreases the entanglement of the other two particles. Finally, we have compared our system with a two-particle system and found that in presence of a magnetic field the increase in number of particles leads to the decrease in the entanglement.
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER)ijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology.
Understanding Intrinsic Properties ofBiological Molecules in Absence of Sol...jennypswong
The dissociation kinetics of a small biological molecule, leucine enkephalin (LE), are examined using a Quadruple Ion Trap Mass Spectrometer in order to determine the effect of activation waveform on ion effective temperature (Teff). The effective temperature is found to have a linear relationship with the applied activation amplitude. The dissociation kinetics of LE are found to be greatly affected by pressure in the mass spectrometer, showing faster dissociation at lower pressures. The effects of other experimental parameters, including the temperature of the inlet capillary and sensitivity to the frequency of the activation waveform, are also explored. Calibration of Teff as a function of activation waveform will provide a way to obtain Arrhenius activation parameters (activation energy and frequency factor) for other biological
molecules and lead to better understand of their intrinsic properties.
Experimental Study of an Atmospheric Pressure Dielectric Barrier Discharge an...IJERA Editor
A homogeneous dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) in argon was produced by applying high voltage A.C. source of potential difference (0-20) kV operating at a frequency of 10-30 kHz across two parallel plate electrodes with glass as dielectric barrier. The discharge was characterized by optical emission spectroscopy (OES) and electrical measurement. Four argon emission lines from the discharge were analyzed and the electron temperature was estimated by line intensity ratio method. The electron density in the discharge was estimated by power balance method. An investigation of the effect of inter-electrode distance on the electron density was made. The results showed that the electron temperature is less than 1 eV and the electron density is of the order of 1011cm-3 which varied with the inter electrode distance. Discharge was applied for surface modification of polyethylene terepthalate (PET). Modified surfaces were studied by contact angle measurement and FTIR spectroscopy.
Experimental Study of an Atmospheric Pressure Dielectric Barrier Discharge an...IJERA Editor
A homogeneous dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) in argon was produced by applying high voltage A.C. source of potential difference (0-20) kV operating at a frequency of 10-30 kHz across two parallel plate electrodes with glass as dielectric barrier. The discharge was characterized by optical emission spectroscopy (OES) and electrical measurement. Four argon emission lines from the discharge were analyzed and the electron temperature was estimated by line intensity ratio method. The electron density in the discharge was estimated by power balance method. An investigation of the effect of inter-electrode distance on the electron density was made. The results showed that the electron temperature is less than 1 eV and the electron density is of the order of 1011cm-3 which varied with the inter electrode distance. Discharge was applied for surface modification of polyethylene terepthalate (PET). Modified surfaces were studied by contact angle measurement and FTIR spectroscopy.
I am Peterson N. I am a Physical Chemistry Assignment Expert at eduassignmenthelp.com. I hold a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Australia. I have been helping students with their homework for the past 8 years. I solve assignments related to Physical Chemistry.
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Using the two forms of Fish-Bone potential (I and II), a self-consistent calculations are carried out to perform the analysis of binding energies, root mean square radii and form factors using different configuration symmetries of 20Ne nucleus. A computer simulation search program has been introduced to solve this problem. The Hilbert space was restricted to three and four dimensional variational function space spanned by single spherical harmonic oscillator orbits. A comparison using Td and D3h configuration symmetries are carried out.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
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Empowering NextGen Mobility via Large Action Model Infrastructure (LAMI): pav...
G0364250
1. IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP)
e-ISSN: 2278-4861.Volume 3, Issue 6 (May. - Jun. 2013), PP 42-50
www.iosrjournals.org
www.iosrjournals.org 42 | Page
Stellar Measurements with the New Intensity Formula
Bo Thelin
Manager,Solarphotonics HB,Granitvägen 12B,75243 Uppsala Sweden
Abstract:In this paper a linear relationship in stellar optical spectra has been found by using a
spectroscopical method used on optical light sources where it is possible to organize atomic and ionic data.
This method is based on a new intensity formula in optical emission spectroscopy (OES). Like the HR-diagram ,
it seems to be possible to organize the luminosity of stars from different spectral classes. From that organization
it is possible to determine the temperature , density and mass of stars by using the new intensity formula. These
temperature, density and mass values agree well with literature values. It is also possible to determine the mean
electron temperature of the optical layers (photospheres) of the stars as it is for atoms in the for laboratory
plasmas. The mean value of the ionization energies of the different elements of the stars has shown to be very
significant for each star. This paper also shows that the hydrogen Balmer absorption lines in the stars follow
the new intensity formula.
Keywords: Astrophysics, Emission Spectroscopy Linear, Relationships
I. Introduction
The author and the collegue Dr. Sten Yngström have earlier presented a new formula for the intensity of
spectral lines in optical emission spectroscopy (OES) in many previous papers and conferences.
According to a new theory in Ref 1 the intensity I(hν) is given by equation 1
I ( hν ) = C λ-2
exp (- J/ kT ) / (( exp ( hν/kT) – 1 ) (1)
where ν is the frequency of the λ is the wavelength of atomic spectral line, J the ionization energy of the atom,
and C is a product of factors about sample properties (number densities of atoms and electrons) and the
transition probability of the atom.
In earlier papers by us about this formula in Ref 2 and Ref 3, we studied absolute intensities. The intensities
came from arc measurements and are tabled in Ref (4 ), which we have used in our studies. In these studies the
new intensity formula was used in the development of this method of analysis. In this method ln ( I λ2
) was
plotted versus
hν ( 1+θ/hν ln(1-exp(-hν/θ))) eV for 17 elements.
Each intensity value is the mean value of many individual values. By forming the maximum between the
difference between ln I λ2
and ln λ2
the following formula will be the basic equation in this method of analysis.
ln ( Imax λ2
max) = const. - 1.6 J / hνmax ( 2 )
Fig 1 ln (Imax λ2
max) plotted versus (1.6 J ) / hνmax
for seventeen elements from the NBS tables in Ref 4.
This graph can be seen in Fig 1, where ln ( Imax λ2
max ) has been plotted versus 1.6 J / hνmax =
J /θ for 17 elements, where θ = k Te (electron temperature). J denotes table value of ionization energy. This
graph forms a good linear relationship, where hνmax = 1.6 θ. This means that this graph is a strong support of the
new intensity formula, based on the new theory. It is also possible to measure the internal electron temperature
for different elements. It has now shown to be possible to obtain similar linear relationships when using
intensity data of stellar optical spectra. In Table 1 the electron temperature- and ionization energy values from
2. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 43 | Page
17 elements are shown with this method. The mean value of these electron temperature values are around 2 eV,
which fit well with literature values Ref 5.
A very strong support of this new intensity formula has recently been published in two open access summary
papers Ref 6 and Ref 7, where different methods from the literature have been used, which support the new
intensity formula.
Table 1
Determination of the electron temperature for 17 elements of different ionization energies
Element θ (eV) J (eV)
Cs 1.6 3.89
Na 1.9 5.14
Ba 1.8 5.20
Li 1.8 5.39
Ca 2.1 6.11
Yb 2.1 6.25
Sc 2.1 6.70
Cr 2.3 6.76
Ti 2.1 6.83
Sn 2.1 7.33
Mo 2.3 7.38
Mn 2.3 7.43
Ag 2.1 7.57
Ni 2.1 7.63
Fe 2.1 7.86
Co 2.2 7.88
Pt 2.1 9.0
II. Ionic spectra
The intensity formula for ions has a similar appearance as equation 1 and is shown in equation
3. This formula include ionization energies for the first (J1) and second (J2) ionization energy, which has been
proposed earlier in the detection limit method Ref 10 and in two open access ionic papers of Ref 8 and Ref 9,
which have recently been published. C is a factor given by transition probabilities, number densities and sample
properties. λ and ν are here the wavelength and frequency of the ionic spectral line. The ionic intensity formula
has the following appearance :
I = C λ-2
( e x p (- (J1+J2)/ k T )) / ( e x p ( h ν /k T) – 1 ) ( 3 )
To show the validity of equation 3 with this method ln ( I λ2
) was plotted versus hν ( 1+θ/hν ln(1-exp(-hν/θ)))
eV for 11 elements; each intensity value comes from many individual values from the NBS table of Ref 4. By
forming the maximum between the difference between ln Iλ2
and ln λ2
, ln ( Imax λ2
max ) was plotted versus 1.6 (
J1+J2) / hνmax =( J1+J2)/θ in the same way as for atoms which is seen above. The points will follow an
expression in equation 4 for ions which is similar to equation 2 for atoms.
ln ( Imax λ2
max) = const. - 1.6 (J1+J2) / hνmax ( 4 )
Equation 4 includes ionization energies for the first and second ionization energy. 11 different elements were
plotted in this way and (J1+J2) and θ are tabled in Table 2 for 11 ionic elements. These values fit well with
secondary electron temperature values from the literature in Ref 5.
A similar plot to Fig 1 for atoms has also been done for ions of 11 elements, which is seen in Fig 2. The mean
value of electron temperatures are about 4 eV for ions, which fit well with the literature values Ref 5.
3. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 44 | Page
Fig 2 ln ( Imax λ2
max ) plotted versus ( 1.6 ( J1 + J2 ))/ h νmax for eleven ionic elements from the NBS
tables.
Table 2
Determination of the electron temperature for 11 ionic elements of different ionization energies
Element ( J1 + J2 ) (eV) θ (eV)
Yb 18.36 3.3
Y 19.00 3.3
Sc 19.60 3.6
Ti 20.44 3.4
Mn 23.07 4.4
Cr 23.46 3.5
Fe 24.10 4.2
C 35.65 4.9
K 36.15 4.5
Cs 36.35 5.1
Cu 28.00 5.0
According to Refs 8 and 9 a general recursion formula for two adjacent ionic states(r and r+1) could be written
in the following way :
Ir+1 = Cr λ-2
( e x p (- (Jr+Jr+1)/ k T )) / ( e x p ( h ν /k T) – 1 ) ( 5 )
III. Stellar Spectra
These stellar optical spectra extend over the spectral classes O – M and the photometrically well-
calibrated luminosity measurements from star to star, and come from Ref 11 . Good temperature and luminosity
coverage have been achieved. The data were digitalized from the main sequence classed O5 – F0 and F6 – K5
displayed in term of relative flux as a function of wavelength. The parameters that have been measured in this
investigation are maximum luminosity Lmax(Rel.fluxmax) of the Planck curve. In this maximum the wavelength
λmax and the maximum frequency νmax were also measured.
Then ln (Lmax λmax
2
) values were plotted versus (1.6 Jmeanvalue / hνmax) where Jmeanvalue is the mean value of the
ionization energies of the elements of the stars measured. To obtain a similar linear relationship for the stellar
data as in Fig 1 from the spectroscopical method from Refs 2 and 3, the following luminosity data from Ref 11
and data from Table 3 were used and plotted according to equation 6
ln ( Lmax λmax
2
) = const – (1.6 Jmeanvalue/ hνmax) (6)
which is similar to equation 2 for atoms and equation 4 for ions.
To obtain the values of Table 3 it is necessary to use a two step procedure. In the first step it is necessary to
define the graph by calculating the Jmeanvalue of the G2-star. The Jmeanvalue can be
expressed in the following way :
Jmeanvalue = ∑ cn Jn (7)
where cn is the normalized content of an element of a star. It is plausible to consider the content values of G2-
stars rather to be similar to the content values of the sun. Therefore
the cn-values of the sun have been used here. Jn is here the ionization of a star. This Jmeanvalue has been
calculated for the sun (G2 star), which gave Jmeanvalue = 16.2 eV according to the linear graph in Fig 3. This value
4. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
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is 16.2 eV, too, for the sun when using equation 6 together with established chemical composition values of
the sun. This means that we now have one point determined in Fig 3.
A more profound description of this method of creating Fig 3 and Table 3 is described in Ref 12.
Table 3
Determination of the electron temperature of the stars from different spectral classes
Spectral class θ (eV) Jmeanvalue (eV)
K5V 1.44 15.5
K4V 1.47 15.6
G9-K0 1.50 15.8
G6-G8 1.53 16.0
G1-G2 1.56 16.2
F8-F9V 1.63 16.7
F6-F7V 1.63 16.5
------------------------------------------------------------------------
A9-F0V 1.72 16.9
A8 1.75 17.1
A5-A7 1.81 17.5
A1-A3 1.84 17.6
B6V 1.88 17.8
B3-B4V 1.94 18.0
O7-B0V 1.97 18.1
O5V 2.00 18.2
Fig 3
ln ( Lmax λ2
max) plotted versus (1.6 Jmeanvalue) / hνmax
for different stars from spectral classes O – M (from Ref 12)
The data in Fig 3 constitute a straight line in the classes O5 – F0 and F6 – K5.
In equation 6 hνmax = 1.6 θ, where θ = internal electron temperature in eV. This means that the classes O5 – F0
have higher temperature than the classes F6 – K5, which is also in accordance with the usual HR-diagram. For
example a G2 star (the sun) has θ = 1.56 eV (Te = 18110 K).
IV. The Use Of The Balmer Lines
It is shown in the in the paper by Ref 11 that the appearance of the continuous-and discrete
spectra of stars seem to be the same, where the hydrogen Balmer absorption lines of different stars have been
studied. These are the well known Planck curves with steep low wavelength side and a slow high wavelength
side. The wavelength of the intensity maximum of continuous-and discrete spectrum seems to be the same. This
in agreement with equation 1 and the new theory, where the Planck factor is a part of the new intensity formula.
This isclearly seen in Fig 4 from the spectrum of two A-stars. The normalized flux is here propor-tional to the
emissions from the continuous-and discrete spectrum. These curves show very good examples of Planck curves,
5. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 46 | Page
where continuous-and discrete emissions seem to have the same wavelength maximum. The wavelengths of the
Balmer lines are shown in Table 4 (Ref 13). By using equation 6 and Table 3intensity ratios have been
determined theoretically(from intensity formula) and experimentally by using the data of Ref 11 , from different
spectral classes of stars. At the use of these intensity ratios JH = 13.595 eV for hydrogen was used. The electron
temperatures for different spectral classes have earlier been determined in Table 1 in Ref (12 ). A summary of
the values from the spectral classes of this paper is shown in Table 5 Nice correlation (r=0.98 ) has been
achieved between theoretical-and experimental intensity ratios.This is shown in Fig 5 and is, together with Fig
4, a strong evidence of the fact that stars follow the new intensity formula, as atoms and ions do. Fig 5 shows
very nice correlation between experiment and theory.
Table 4
Balmer lines used here
Hα 6562.80 Å
Hβ 4861.32 Å
Hγ 4340.46 Å
Hδ 4101.73 Å
Hε 3970.07 Å
Table 5
Spectral classes and mean electron temperature
class θ (eV)
A8 1.75
A5-A7 1.81
A1-A3 1.84
B6V 1.88
B3-B4V 1.94
Fig 4
Plot of normalized flux versus the wavelength(Planck curve) for two different A-stars.
The absorption hydrogen Balmer lines are clearly observed. The wavelength of the intensity maxima for both
continuous and discrete emissions seems to be the same.
(From Ref 11)
6. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 47 | Page
Fig 5 Spectral intensity ratios (experimental and theoretical) give very good correlation(r=0.98) using the
Balmer lines from different spectral classes of stars using the new intensity formula.
Spectral classes used: A8=unfilled circles , A5-A7=unfilled squares, A1-A3=unfilled triangles, B6V= filled
circles, B3-B4=filled squares.
V. Determination Of The Effective Temperature Of Stars
Table (66 ) p.564 in Ref (13) were then used, where the effective temperatures were tabled from many
main sequence stars from different spectral classes (A-K).These effective temperature values were then plotted
versus the electron temperature values from corresponding spectral class from Table 3 in this paper. In this way
effective temperature values have been obtained for 12 main sequence stars and are tabled in Table 6.
Good correlation (+- 85 K) is here achieved between the values from this investigation and the literature values
based on the Stefan-Boltzmann temperature law and can be seen in Table 6 and Fig 6, which show good
correlation (r=0.99).
Fig 6 Effective temperature plotted versus electron temperature for a number of main
sequence stars.(correlation r= 0.99)
7. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 48 | Page
Table 6
Determination of Teffective of stars
From the graph From the literature Spectral group
Vega 9300o
K 9300o
K A0
Altair 8100 8000 A7
Procoyon A 7500 7500 F5
Sun 5700 5740 G2
Sirius A 9500 9700 A1
Aldebaran 4200 4100 K5
Pollux 4700 4500 K0
Capella B 5200 4940 G5-G0
Regulus 9700 10300 B7
Canopus 7250 7350 F0
Fomalhaut 8700 8500 A3
Sirius B 8400 8200 A5
VI. Determination Of The Density Of A Star By Using Balmer Lines.
According to equation 1 the C-factor is a product of factors of number densities of atoms and electrons. By
using the approximate formula of equation of equation 1 we obtain :
I = C λ-2
exp ( - (hν + J )/ kTe ) ( 8 )
By expressing C as a function of the other parameters in equation 8 and by taking the ratio between the density
of a star compared to the sun, we obtain the following expression
Cstar / 1 = ( Iγ star / Iγ sun)( λmax star / λmax sun )2
exp ((hνmax star + JH )/ θstar - (hνmax sun + JH )/ θsun)
( 9 )
where C = 1 is the sun value and θ=kTe. The intensity ratio ( Iγ / Iγ sun ) here is the ratio between the γ-Balmer
line from the star and the sun from the data of Ref (11). λmax and the hνmax have also been taken from Ref (11)
and the electron temperature values have been taken from Ref (12) for different spectral classes. JH is the
ionization energy of hydrogen.
The results of 12 stars here, are shown in Fig 7 and Table 7 where ρ / ρ0 –values been calculated for 12
different main sequence stars. In Fig 7 a straight line is achieved following
in the near of the Schwarzschild line Ref 13 (p.555 ).
Table 7
Determination of density ratio of 12 stars relative to the sun
Star ρ / ρsun(new method) spectral class
Aldebaran 1.26 K5
Pollux 0.95 K0
Capella B 0.91 G5
Sun 1.0 G2
Procyon A 0.66 F5
Canopus 0.55 F0
Altair 0.45 A7
Sirius B 0.37 A5
Formalhaut 0.42 A3
Sirius A 0.42 A1
Vega 0.39 A0
Regulus 0.28 B7
η Ori 0.14 B1
8. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
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Fig 7 Density determination of stars relative to the sun at different spectral classes.Filled circles = new
method , Filled triangles = Schwarzschild limit
VII. Determination Of The Mass Of The Stars
According to the usual Mass-Luminosity relation in astronomy, there is a linear relationship
between luminosity and mass of a star. In a similar way there is a possibility to use the equation 1 in a similar
way by the fact that M α kTe .By using the approximate formula of
equation 1 we obtain :
I = C λ-2
exp ( - (hν + J )/ kTe ) (10)
By expressing kTe as a function of the other parameters in equation 10 and by taking the ratio
between the mass of a star compared to the sun (M0 ), we obtain the following expression :
Mstar / M0 sun = ln ( I λ2
/C0 )max sun( Jmean star+ hνmax star)/ ln ( I λ2
/C)maxstar ( Jmean sun+ hνmax sun)
( 11)
The ln Iλ2
, C , Jmed and hνmax - values in equation 11 can be determined from Fig 3 and
Table 3 in this paper. The l n ( Iλ2
) –values can be shown directly from the graph in Fig 3
for a certain star and the C-values are shown as the prolongation of the two lines in Fig 3
for a certain star placed on one the lines. The M / M0 – values have been tabled in Table 8
for 10 different stars, which show good agreement with the literature values. This good agreement is also shown
in Fig 8 between (M / M0) – values from this new method and literature values and show a nice linear
relationship ( r=0.97 )
Fig 8. Determination of the mass of a number of stars with the new method together with literature
values. (Correlation r= 0.97) .
9. Stellar Measurements With The New Intensity Formula
www.iosrjournals.org 50 | Page
Table 8
Determination of the mass ratio relative to the sun
Star M / Mo (new method) M / Mo(Literature) Spectral class
Vega 2.55 2.50 A0
Formalhaut 2.15 2.30 A3
Sirius A 2.35 2.10 A1
Altair 1.62 1.70 A7
Dubhe 1.40 1.70 F0
α Centauri A 1.00 1.10 G2
Sun 1.00 1.00 G2
Capella B 0.76 0.80 G5
α Centauri B 0.72 0.90 K1
Eksilon 0.62 0.83 K2V
VIII. Discussion
This method of analysis has shown to be a simple method of verifying the new intensity formula by
using atomic, ionic and stellar data. By using this method together with the new intensity formula it has been
possible to determine the mean electron temperature in different laboratory plasmas and in the optical layers of a
star without knowing so much about the chemical composition of the star. These mean electron temperature
values fit well with other methods from the literature. The method also gives an organizing method for stars
similar to the established HR-diagram. The Jmeanvalue has shown to be a kind of “signum” for every star. Fig 3
has shown to be a valuable and simple method of organizing and classifying the stars without knowing so many
other details about the stars. The Balmer spectral absorption lines seem to follow the new intensity formula too,
which is clearly seen in Figs 4 and 5.This is clearly seen by the correlation coefficient ( 0.98 ) . This means that
discrete emissions in the star do follow the new intensity formula but are heavily absorbed in the star. Therefore,
the light coming from the star is mostly continuous radiation following Planck radiation law.
It has also been possible to determine the effective temperature of a number of stars from different spectral
classes on the main sequence. The results gave good agreement with the established temperature method by
Stefan-Boltzmann.
It has also been possible to determine the density of a number of stars compared to the sun from
different spectral classes on the main sequence. These values are in accordance with the Schwarzschild limit.
The graph in Fig 7 shows a nice linear relationship.
It has also been possible to determine the mass of a number of stars compared to the sun from different spectral
classes on the main sequence. These values are in accordance with the literature values. The graph in Fig 8
shows a nice linear relationship.
Acknowledgement:
I would like to express my gratitude to my collegue and friend Dr. Sten Yngström at the Swedish
institute of Space Physics for valuable and interesting discussion about this work.
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