This document discusses constituency tests which are used to identify syntactic constituents in sentences. There are three main types of constituency tests: movement tests, substitution tests, and stand alone tests. Movement tests involve rearranging parts of the sentence. Substitution tests involve replacing parts of the sentence with pronouns or other words. Stand alone tests check if parts of the sentence can stand alone as fragments. The document provides examples to illustrate how each of these tests can identify constituents.
Language, until the inception of 19th century, was related to philosophers and the theories, they presented to define its philosophy.
The scientific study of language did not of course, begin in this century; but the years around 1900 happen to have marked an important turning-point in the history of modern linguistics.
Componential analysis (feature analysis or contrast analysis) is the analysis of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as "present", "absent" or "indifferent with reference to feature". The method thus departs from the principle of compositionality. Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the components of a word's meaning.
Language, until the inception of 19th century, was related to philosophers and the theories, they presented to define its philosophy.
The scientific study of language did not of course, begin in this century; but the years around 1900 happen to have marked an important turning-point in the history of modern linguistics.
Componential analysis (feature analysis or contrast analysis) is the analysis of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as "present", "absent" or "indifferent with reference to feature". The method thus departs from the principle of compositionality. Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the components of a word's meaning.
Tenses and Adverbs: A Comprehensive Guide
Introduction:
Tenses and adverbs are two fundamental aspects of language that play a crucial role in conveying the timing, duration, and frequency of actions and events. Tenses help us understand when something happened, while adverbs provide additional information about how, where, or to what extent an action took place. Together, they enhance the clarity and precision of communication in any language. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into tenses and adverbs, exploring their functions, types, and the ways they interact within sentences.
I. Tenses:
Tenses are grammatical tools used to indicate the time of an action, event, or state. In English, there are three primary tenses: past, present, and future, each of which can be further divided into various forms.
1. Past Tense:
The past tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that occurred in the past. It can be divided into four main forms: simple past, past continuous, past perfect, and past perfect continuous.
- Simple Past: This tense is used for actions that occurred and were completed in the past. For example, "She traveled to Paris last summer."
- Past Continuous: This tense is used to describe actions that were ongoing or in progress at a specific point in the past. For example, "They were studying all night."
- Past Perfect: The past perfect tense is used to express an action that took place before another action in the past. For example, "He had already eaten when I arrived."
- Past Perfect Continuous: This tense is used to emphasize the duration of an action that started in the past and continued up to a certain point. For example, "She had been working at the company for five years when she got promoted."
2. Present Tense:
The present tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that are happening now or are generally true. Like the past tense, it has multiple forms: simple present, present continuous, present perfect, and present perfect continuous.
- Simple Present: This tense is used to describe actions or situations that are timeless or habitual. For example, "I read books regularly."
- Present Continuous: The present continuous tense is used to describe actions that are currently in progress. For example, "They are playing football in the park."
- Present Perfect: This tense is used to express actions that occurred at an unspecified time in the past but are relevant to the present. For example, "I have visited Paris several times."
- Present Perfect Continuous: This tense is used to emphasize the continuous nature of an action that began in the past and continues into the present. For example, "She has been working on her project for hours."
3. Future Tense:
The future tense is used to describe actions, events, or states that will occur in the future. It can be expressed through various forms, such as simple future, future continuous, future perfect, and future perfect continuous.
- Simple Futu
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Constituency tests, presented by dr. shadia yousef banjar.pptx
1. LANE 334 -EA: Syntax
2011 – Term 2
CONSTITUENCY TESTS 4
By: http://SBANJAR.kau.edu.sa/
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar http://wwwdrshadiabanjar.blogspot.com
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 1
2. What is a constituent?
A constituent: is a syntactic unit that combines with other constituents
according to a grammatical rule to produce a larger structure.
Constituents may be:
1. Words: e.g.
• snake ( )
• killed( )
2. Phrases : e.g. NP &
[ The snake] [ killed [ the rat ] ]
3. Clauses: e.g. S1 &S
[S1 I know [S that the snake killed the rat] ]
4. Sentences e.g. S &
[S She laughed]
S
[ [ S2 The snake killed the rat ] and [S3 it swallowed it] ]
]
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 2
3. • Words that go together form a
constituent (or a phrase).
We can use square brackets to mark
constituents:
[ The snake] [ killed [ the rat ] ]
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 3
4. Constituency tests
•In order for a string to be confirmed as a
constituent, it needs to pass one of the
constituency tests.
•If one of the tests applies to a string of words,
they form a constituent.
•If a test fails to apply to a string of words, it
doesn’t show that they do not form a
constituent.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 4
5. Constituency tests
There are Three types of
constituency tests:
I. Movement Test
II. Substitution Test
III. Stand Alone Test
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 5
6. One test for a constituent is that, because it is a coherent unit, it
can move from one position to another in the sentence.
• To find out whether a string is a constituent or not, we can take
this string and move it to some other position in the sentence.
• If the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then the string is a
constituent.
• In English, strings cannot be moved at random, or anywhere in
the sentence. Only specific types of movement are permitted so
let us look at some examples of possible movement in English:
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 6
7. Often we can move a constituent to the beginning (to
emphasize it, contrast it, etc):
I don’t like cheese cakes.
Cheese cakes, I don’t like (but chocolate cakes I love!)
This cannot be done to items that are not constituents.
For example, like cheese above cannot be fronted:
* Like cheese, I don’t cakes.
Constituents may be fronted as a unit in English:
Tasar is produced in a humid and dense belt of tropical
forest in India.
In a humid and dense belt of tropical forest in India, tasar
is produced.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 7
8. Salma selected a doughnut filled with strawberry cream
from the bakery.
From the bakery, Salma selected a doughnut filled with
strawberry cream.
This student will answer all questions immediately.
Immediately, the student will answer all questions.
All questions, the student will answer immediately.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 8
9. A constituent with a patient role undergoes movement
from the object position to the subject position so active
voice will be changed into passive voice:
a. Wild silk moths in countries like India and Japan also
produce it.
• It is also produced by wild silk moth in countries like
India and Japan.
b. People cultivate several species.
• Several species are cultivated.
* Several are cultivated species.
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10. Passivisation operates as:
c. These trucks produce filthy fumes.
• [Filthy fumes] are produced by trucks.
•Since we can move the unit filthy fumes to a
different part of the sentence, filthy fumes is a
constituent.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 10
11. a. She liked Arabic coffee (normal sentence)
• Arabic coffee she liked. (clefted sentence)
•* [Arabic ] coffee she liked (ungrammatical
sentence)
NOTE: This doesn’t work with VPs (Verb Phrases):
•* [like Arabic Coffee ] she did.
b. The girls should have taken a taxi.
the girls should have taken a taxi.
a taxi the girls should have taken.
•* should have taken the girls a taxi.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 11
12. The operations of fronting a constituent like ‘ from silk worms’
and surrounding it by ( ) are part of a
process known as CLEFTING. If we represent the string from
silk worms by , we could summarise the process as following:
CLAUSE It is X that CLAUSE
[with X] [without X]
So:
c. Most of the silk we see in Britain comes from silk worms.
• from silkworms most of the silk we see in Britain
comes.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 12
13. A constituent can be focused as a cleft surrounded by it is/was
….. that:
d.1. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
• on Saturday Jane gave this book to Bill.
d.2. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
• to Bill Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
d.3. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
this book Jane gave to Bill on Saturday.
d.4. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
Jane gave gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
d.5. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
•* Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 13
14. A process closely related to clefting is that of pseudo-clefting.
A constituent may be focused as a pseudo-cleft using the
This
is a test that works for VPs.
a. She liked Arabic coffee. (normal sentence)
• she like Arabic coffee. (pseudo-clefted sentence)
b. The girls should have taken a taxi.
• the girls should have taken a taxi.
c.1. Jane gave this book to Bill on Saturday.
• Jane give this book to Bill on Saturday.
c.2. Jane [gave [this book ]to Bill on Saturday].
• Jane gave to Bill on Saturday this book.
• This book Jane gave to Bill on Saturday.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 14
15. Another type of constituency test is substitution.
• A particular string of words is a constituent if it can be
substituted/replaced by another string: such a string
could be a single word (e.g. pronoun), a series of
words, or even by nothing at all.
• This won’t really always work for identifying single-word
constituents.
•Just as with movement, English permits only certain
types of substitution. We will now look at types of
substitution in English:
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 15
16. Only constituents can be replaced by pro-
forms.
pronouns she, he, it, they, us, her, that
pro-verbs do, be
pro-adverbs there, then, here
pro-adjectives such, so, thus
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 16
17. (for NPs)
• [My older sister] admires [men who can eat a lot]
• admires
• *[She] admires [them can eat a lot]
• *[My older ] admires [ ]
The idea is that pronouns can only substitute for
full constituents, not for parts of constituents.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 17
18. •Tim waited [at the station]. (Normal sentence)
• Tim waited [there]. (there-substituted sentence)
• She knows an Italian student of English and I know a
Spanish [student of English].
• She knows an Italian student of English and I know a
Spanish [one].
(for VPs)
• He wrote a letter and she [wrote a letter], too.
• He wrote a letter and she [did so], too.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 18
19. Under coordination constituents can often be substituted by a
pronoun or more generally ‘pro-form’, such as:
• he/she/it etc. for people
• there for locations
• do so/it/that etc. for some VPs and sentences
A. The girl admires her teacher and the children admire her
too.
B. David and his brother drove for hours and they got scared
by the heavy fog.
C. Tom was waiting at the station and Sara was waiting there
too.
D. I love having my work done on time and Dalia does (so) too.
E. I think that the boys found the diamonds and the officer
thinks so too.
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 19
20. •Some words in a sentence are linked more closely together than
others.
•They form grammatical units within the sentence.
•These grammatical units (sentence, clause, phrase, words) are
the constituents of the sentence.
•There are various processes which can help to identify such
constituents.
•For example , the string ‘at Harvard’ can be identified as a
constituent using some ‘constituency tests’:
a) George allegedly cheated at Harvard.
a. 1) The string ‘at Harvard’ can be replaced by one word (there):
George allegedly cheated at Harvard
there
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 20
21. a. 2) one can ask a question of the following form:
Where did George allegedly cheated?
The answer will be ‘at Harvard’. Where corresponds
to ‘at Harvard’.
a. 3) At and Harvard can be moved around together,
as the following sentences illustrate:
• George allegedly cheated at Harvard.
• at Harvard George allegedly cheated.
• allegedly George cheated at Harvard.
• allegedly at Harvard George cheated.
• George at Harvard allegedly cheated.
• George at Harvard cheated allegedly
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 21
22. • a. 4) ‘at Harvard’ can be the focus element X in a cleft
sentence:
• It was at Harvard that George allegedly cheated.
• These tests are used to determine the constituent-
hood of ‘At Harvard’:
• Their applicability may be summed up as follows:
• At + Harvard
A.Substituted by one word : Yes
B.Questioned by one word : Yes
C.Move together : Yes
D.Can be the focus element X in a cleft sentence : Yes
13/3/2011 Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 22