The document discusses fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body. It covers several key points:
1) Water and electrolytes like sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride must be balanced for normal bodily function. The kidneys and other organs work to maintain this balance.
2) Imbalances in various electrolytes can occur from medical conditions, medications, or diet. This can cause issues like abnormal heart rhythms or muscle problems.
3) Laboratory tests are used to diagnose electrolyte imbalances by measuring levels in blood and urine. Treatment focuses on identifying and addressing the underlying cause while restoring normal electrolyte levels.
-water balance --> body composed of about 60-70% water
-total body water-->42L, ICF --> 28L, ECF --> 14L
- water output by urine,skin,lungs,feces.
-electrolyte bALANCE , expressed as mEq/L.
-water balance --> body composed of about 60-70% water
-total body water-->42L, ICF --> 28L, ECF --> 14L
- water output by urine,skin,lungs,feces.
-electrolyte bALANCE , expressed as mEq/L.
THIS SEMINAR GIVES THE BASIC OVERVIEW THAT HOW YOU CAN MANAGE THE PATIENT WHO COMES TO YOU A FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE . AND BASIC MECHANISM OF HOMEOSTASTIS
fluid and electrolyte disturbance in human bodybhartisharma175
it explain about definition of fluid and electrolyte disturbance, causes and different types of fluid disturbance. diagnostic evaluation and their emergent management along with supportive management.
fluid and electrolyte imbalance
normal physiology of fluid regulation
FLUID IMBALANCES- fluid volume excess, fluid volume deficit, third spacing,
ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCES- hypo and hypernatremia, hypo and hyperkalemia, hypo and hypercalcemia
THIS SEMINAR GIVES THE BASIC OVERVIEW THAT HOW YOU CAN MANAGE THE PATIENT WHO COMES TO YOU A FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE . AND BASIC MECHANISM OF HOMEOSTASTIS
fluid and electrolyte disturbance in human bodybhartisharma175
it explain about definition of fluid and electrolyte disturbance, causes and different types of fluid disturbance. diagnostic evaluation and their emergent management along with supportive management.
fluid and electrolyte imbalance
normal physiology of fluid regulation
FLUID IMBALANCES- fluid volume excess, fluid volume deficit, third spacing,
ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCES- hypo and hypernatremia, hypo and hyperkalemia, hypo and hypercalcemia
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
Sodium is necessary for the body to maintain fluid balance and is critical for normal body function. It also helps to regulate nerve function and muscle contraction.
Hyponatremia and Hyponatremia.
Pharmacist pay scales in 7th cpc proposed by ihpa Dr B Naga Raju
Y.Goverdhan, Sr Pharmacist,SWRailway/Ministry of Railways/ Govt of India presented Pharmacist's demands on behalf of Indian Hospital Pharmacists Association as General Secretary/ Mysore Branch/ Karnataka
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
1. Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
By
Nagaraju BWater Balance
•When Water intake equals water loss, the body is in
fluid balance. Fluid balance is the concept of human
homeostasis
•When water loss is greater than intake, or vice versa, a
fluid imbalance may result
2.
3. Introduction
• The body maintains its internal environment by balancing
the amounts, volume and composition of water,
electrolytes, proteins, acids and bases. The most
abundant constituent of the body is water, which
accounts for 60% of body mass.
• Within this, water is dissolved or suspended the
elements and formed substances which needed to
generate energy, maintain and manufacture the body
components, metabolize the nutrients and drugs and
eliminate wastes.
• Salt and water balance in the body is maintained by the
equilibrium between the intake of fluid and electrolytes,
evaporation of solute free water across the skin and
lungs and controlled renal excretion of water and
electrolytes. The amount of water that evaporates is
function of body surface area and respiratory rate.
4. Maintenance needs per hour
WATER
0-10kg/body wt 100ml/kg
10-20 kg/body wt 50ml/kg
>20kg/body wt 20ml/kg
ELECTROLYTES
Na 3mmol/kg
K 2mmol/kg
Cl 2mmol/kg
Ca 0.05-0.1mmol/kg
Mg 0.05mmol/kg
Po4 0.1mmol/kg
NORMAL SERUM LEVELS OF ELECTROLYTES
Na 135-145mmol/L
K 3.5-5.0mmol/L
Cl 96-106mmol/L
Ca Total: 2.15mmol/L
Ionized: 1.19-1.37mmol/L
P 0.80-1.44mmol/L
Urea 3.0-8.0mmol/L
Glucose Fasting: 3.3-6.0mmol/L
Non-fasting: <11.0mmol/L
5. Hypovolemia
• It is a state of decreased blood volume; loss of blood
volume due hemorrhaging or dehydration decreased
in volume of blood plasma. It is characterized by
sodium depletion but, it differs from dehydration
Causes: Dehydration, bleeding, vomiting, severe
burns, alcohol consumption, ruptured PCOS, drugs
like vasodilators.
Symptoms: Nauseated, thirsty, dizzy, fatigue,
weakness, muscle cramps, oligurea, bleeding,
confusion, cyanosis, abdominal pain, decreased skin
turgor.
Diagnosis: Increased hematocrit value, plasma
albumin and creatinine levels and Urine osmolarity
6. • Treatment: Minor hypovolemia from a known cause
that has been completely controlled may be
countered with initial rest for up to half an hour. Oral
fluids that include moderate sugars and electrolytes
are needed to replenish depleted sodium ions
• If the hypovolemia was caused by medication, the
administration of antidotes may be appropriate but
should be carefully monitored to avoid shock or the
emergence of other pre-existing conditions.
• Fluid replacement is beneficial in hypovolemia of
stage-2, and if necessary in stage-3 and-4.
Blood transfusions coupled with surgical repair are
the definitive treatment for hypovolemia caused by
trauma.
7. Hypervolemia
• Hypervolemia, or fluid overload, is the medical
condition where there is too much fluid in the blood.
Causes: Excessive sodium or fluid intake: IV therapy
, blood transfusion reactions, High intake of sodium.
Sodium or water retention: Heart failure,
Liver cirrhosis, Nephrotic syndrome, Corticosteroid
therapy, Hyperaldosteronism,Low protein intake.
Fluid shift into the intravascular space: Fluid
remobilization after burn treatment, Administration
of hypertonic fluids, e.g. mannitol or
hypertonic saline solution, Administration of plasma
proteins, such as albumin
8. Symptoms: Peripheral oedema, scites, dyspnea, PND, confusion,
coma, oedema of chest, abdomen and lower legs.
Complications: Congestive heart failure, hypervolemic
hyponaremia, pulmonary oedema
Diagnosis: Medical Interview:
Laboratory Tests like CBC, Serum urea, creatinine and
electrolytes: Urinalysis, Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), Liver
function tests : To assess protein and albumin levels.
Imaging studies; ECG: Chest X-Ray: Further investigations.
Hypervolemia Differential Diagnosis;
Pneumonia, Pulmonary embolism (without added lung
sounds), Acute anaphylaxis may lead to wheezing, swollen
tongue or lips, Bronchospasm, Basal lung crackles, Fine
inspiratory crackles
Treatment: Reversion fluid intake, Diuresis therapy
9. Electrolytes are present in the human body, and the balance of the
electrolytes in our bodies is essential for normal function of our cells and
our organs.
10. Sodium
• Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood
volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and ph.
• The minimum physiological requirement for sodium
is 500 milligrams per day. If the sodium level falls too
low, it's called hyponatremia; If it gets too high, it's
called hypernatremia
• In addition to regulating total volume,
the osmolarity (the amount of solute per unit
volume) of body fluids is also tightly regulated.
Extreme variation in osmolarity causes cells to shrink
or swell, damaging or destroying cellular structure
and disrupting normal cellular function.
11. Sodium
imbalances
Definiti
on
Risk factors/
etiology
Clinical
manifestation
Laboratory
findings
management
Hyponatr
aemia It is
defined
as a
plasma
sodium
level
below
135
mEq/ L
Kidney diseases
Adrenal
insufficiency
Gastrointestinal
losses
Use of diuretics
(especially with
along with low
sodium diet)
Metabolic acidosis
•Weak rapid
pulse
•Hypotension
•Dizziness
•Apprehension
and anxiety
•Abdominal
cramps
•Nausea and
vomiting
•Diarrhea
•Coma and
convulsion
•Cold clammy
skin
•Finger print
impression on the
sternum after
palpation
•Personality
change
•Serum sodium
less than
135mEq/ L
• serum
osmolality less
than
280mOsm/kg
•urine specific
gravity less than
1.010
•Identify the cause
and treat
*Administration of
sodium orally, by NG
tube or parenterally
*For patients who are
able to eat & drink,
sodium is easily
accomplished through
normal diet.
*For those unable to
drink Ringer’s lactate
solution or isotonic
saline [0.9%Nacl]is
given
*For very low sodium
0.3%Nacl may be
indicated
*water restriction in
case of
hypervolaemia
12. Sodium
imbalan
-ce
Defini
tion
causes Clinical
manifestation
Lab findings management
Hyperna
t
-remia
It is
define
d as
plasm
a
sodiu
m
level
greate
r than
145m
E
q/L
*Ingestion of
large amount
of
concentrated
salts
*Iatrogenic
administratio
n of
hypertonic
saline IV
*Excess
alderosterone
secretion
• Low grade
fever
• Postural
hypertension
• Dry tongue
& mucous
membrane
• Agitation
•
Convulsions
•
Restlessness
•
Excitability
• Oliguria or
anuria
• Thirst
• Dry
&flushed skin
*high serum
sodium
135mEq/L
*high serum
osmolality295
mO sm/kg
*high urine
specificity
1.030
*Administration of
hypotonic sodium
solution [0.3 or 0.45%]
*Rapid lowering of
sodium can cause
cerebral edema
*Slow administration
of IV fluids with the
goal of reducing
sodium not more than 2
mEq/L for the first 48
hrs decreases this risk
*Diuretics are given in
case of sodium excess
*In case of Diabetes
insipidus desmopressin
acetate nasal spray is
used
*Dietary restriction of
sodium in high risk
clients
13. Potassium
• Potassium is a very significant body mineral.
• Potassium ions are necessary for the function of all
living cells. Potassium ion diffusion is a key
mechanism in nerve transmission.
• Potassium is found in especially high concentrations
within plant cells, and in a mixed diet, it is mostly
concentrated in fruits.
• Potassium is most concentrated inside the cells of
the body. The gradient, or the difference in
concentration from within the cell compared to the
plasma, is essential in the generation of the electrical
impulses in the body that allow muscles and the
brain to function.
14. Potassium
imbalance
s
Definiti
on
Causes Clinical
manifestation
Lab findings Management
Hypokal
emia
It is
defined
as
plasma
potassiu
m level
of less
than 3.0
mEq/L
*Use of
potassium
wasting
diuretic
*diarrhea,
vomiting or
other GI
losses
*Alkalosis
*Cushing’s
syndrome
*Polyuria
*Extreme
sweating
*excessive
use of
potassium
free Ivs
*weak
irregular
pulse
*shallow
respiration
*hypotesion
*weakness,
decreased
bowel sounds,
heart blocks ,
paresthesia,
fatigue,
decreased
muscle tone
intestinal
obstruction
* K – less
than 3mEq/L
results in ST
depression ,
flat T wave,
taller U wave
* K – less
than 2mEq/L
cause
widened
QRS,
depressed
ST, inverted
T wave
Mild
hypokalemia[3.3to 3.5]
can be managed by oral
potassium replacement
Moderate hypokalemia
*K-3.0to 3.4mEq/L need
100to 200mEq/L of IV
potassium for the level to
rise to 1mEq/
Severe hypokalemia K-
less than 3.0mEq/L need
200to 400 mEq/L for the
level to rise to l mEq/L
*Dietary replacement of
potassium helps in
correcting the
problem[1875 to 5625
mg/day]
15. Definition Causes Clinical
manifestation
Lab findings Management
Hyperk
alemia
It is
defined as
the
elevation
of
potassium
level
above
5.0mEq/L
Renal failure ,
Hypertonic
dehydration,
Burns& trauma
Large amount of
IV administration
of potassium,
Adrenal
insufficiency
Use of potassium
retaining diuretics
&
rapid infusion of
stored blood
Irregular slow
pulse,
hypotension,
anxiety,
irritability,
paresthesia,
weakness
*High serum
potassium
5.3mEq/L
results in
peaked T wave
HR 60 to 110
*serum
potassium of
7mEq/L results
in low broad P-
wave
*serum
potassium
levels of
8mEq/L results
in no arterial
activity[no p-
wave]
*Dietary restriction of
potassium for potassium
less than 5.5 mEq/L
*Mild hyperkalemia can be
corrected by improving
output by forcing fluids,
giving IV saline or
potassium wasting diuretics
*Severe hyperkalemia is
managed by
1.infusion of calcium
gluconate to decrease the
antagonistic effect of
potassium excess on
myocardium
2.infusion of insulin and
glucose or sodium
bicarbonate to promote
potassium uptake
3.sodium polystyrene
sulfonate [Kayexalate]
given orally or rectally as
retention enema
16. Calcium
• Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet and a
mineral necessary for life. Calcium plays an important role in
building stronger, denser bones early in life and keeping
bones strong and healthy later in life.
• Approximately 99 percent of the body's calcium is stored in
the bones and teeth.T he rest of the calcium in the body has
other important uses, in neurotransmitter release,
and muscle contraction.
• Calcitonin, which promotes bone growth and decreases
calcium levels in the blood, and parathyroid hormone, which
does the opposite. Calcium is bound to the proteins in the
bloodstream, so the level of calcium is related to the
patient's nutrition as well as the calcium intake in the diet.
Calcium metabolism in the body is closely linked to
magnesium levels. Often, the body's magnesium status
needs to be optimized before the calcium levels can be
21. Chloride
• Chloride is the major extracellular anion and
contributes to many body functions includes
• Maintenance of osmotic pressure, acid-base balance,
muscular activity, and the movement of water
between fluid compartments.
• It is associated with sodium in the blood and was the
first electrolyte to be routinely measured in the blood.
Chloride ions are secreted in the gastric juice as
hydrochloric acid, which is essential for the digestion
of food.
22. HYPOCHLOREMIA
• Reduced chloride levels in the body
• Etiology: vomiting, alcoholism, loop or thiazide
diuretics, hyponatremia.
• Treatment: increased Nacl intake , decreased
diuretic dosage
HYPERCHLOREMIA
• Reduced chloride levels in the body
• Etiology: drugs like corticosteroids, guanethidine,
NSAIDS, acertazolamide, metabolic acidosis,
hypernatremia.
• Treatment: electrolyte free water replacement,
23. Uric acid
• End product of purine metabolism.
• Elevated serum uric acid (hyperurecemia) levels due
to decreased rate of excretion, leading to deposition
of mono sodium urate in tissues and joints
precipitating acute attack of gouty arthritis
• Hypourecemia increases cu in body and in women
excess loss of blood during menstruation takes place.
24. Magnesium
• Magnesium(Mg) is an often forgotten electrolyte that is
involved with a variety of metabolic activities in the body,
including relaxation of the smooth muscles that surround the
bronchial tubes in the lung, skeletal muscle contraction, and
excitation of neurons in the brain. Magnesium acts as a
cofactor in many of the body's enzyme activities.
• Magnesium levels in the body are closely linked with sodium,
potassium, and calcium metabolism; and are regulated by the
kidney. Magnesium enters the body through the diet, and the
amount of the chemical that is absorbed depends upon the
concentration of magnesium in the body. Too little
magnesium stimulates absorption from the intestine, while
too much decreases the absorption
25. HYPOMAGNESEMIA
Hypomagnesemia, too little magnesium in the blood
stream, may occur because of many reasons. Some
have to do with dietary deficiencies, inability of the
intestine to absorb the chemical, or due to increased
excretion. Common causes of low magnesium
include alcoholism and its associated malnutrition,
chronic diarrhea, and medications like diuretics
(water pills used to control high blood pressure).
More than half of hospitalized patients in ICUs may
become magnesium deficient. Symptoms involve the
heart with rhythm abnormalities, muscles with
weakness and cramps, and the nervous system,
potentially causing confusion, hallucinations, and
seizures.
26. HYPERMAGNESEMIA
Hypermagnesemia describes too much magnesium in the blood
stream and most often occurs in patients with kidney
function problems in which the excretion of magnesium is
limited. In these patients, too much magnesium intake in the
diet or from magnesium-containing medications like milk of
magnesia or Maalox may cause elevated magnesium levels
• Since the absorption and excretion of magnesium is linked to
other electrolytes, other diseases may be associated with
high magnesium levels, including diabetic ketoacidosis,
adrenal insufficiency, and hyperparathyroidism.
Hypermagnesemia is often associated with hypocalcemia (low
calcium) and hyperkalemia (high potassium).
• Symptoms can include heart rhythm disturbances, muscle
weakness, nausea and vomiting, and breathing difficulties.
27. Bicarbonate
• This electrolyte is an important component of the equation
that keeps the acid-base status of the body in balance.
• Water + Carbon Dioxide = Bicarbonate + Hydrogen
• The lungs regulate the amount of carbon dioxide, and the
kidneys regulate bicarbonate (HCO3
• This electrolyte helps buffer the acids that build up in the
body as normal byproducts of metabolism. For example,
when muscles are working, they produce lactic acid as a
byproduct of energy formation. HCO3 is required to be
available to bind the hydrogen released from the acid to form
carbon dioxide and water. When the body malfunctions, too
much acid may also be produced (for example, diabetic
ketoacidosis, renal tubular acidosis) and HCO3 is needed to
try to compensate for the extra acid production.