Major extracellular and intracellular electrolytes maintain homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms that control pH, ionic balances, and osmotic balances. The three fluid compartments - intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and plasma - contain varying amounts of major electrolytes including sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. Imbalances in electrolyte levels can disrupt cellular functions and cause conditions like hypokalemia, hypernatremia, or hypocalcemia. Precise control of electrolyte concentrations is vital for normal physiological activities.
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistr...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
Electrolyte: Intracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
Plasma (Vascular fluid)
Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
Concentration of important Electrolytes:
Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy: Sodium
chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistr...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes. Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-II (Part-II)
Electrolyte: Intracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
Plasma (Vascular fluid)
Anionic electrolytes- HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, HPO₄²⁻
Cationic electrolytes- Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺
Concentration of important Electrolytes:
Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy: Sodium
chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral Rehydration Salt
(ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Fluid balance is an aspect of the homeostasis of body in which the amount of water in the body needs to be controlled, via osmoregulation and behavior, such that the concentrations of electrolytes (salts in solution) in the various body fluids are kept within healthy ranges.
The core principle of fluid balance is that the amount of water lost from the body must equal the amount of water taken in; for example, in humans, the output (via respiration, perspiration, urination, defecation, and expectoration) must equal the input (via eating and drinking, or by parenteral intake).
This PPT is mainly useful for MBBS as well as other branch of Medicine to have an basic idea about Electrolytes. Also about What to see & What to do in cases of Electrolytes Imbalances.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
This PPT is mainly useful for MBBS as well as other branch of Medicine to have an basic idea about Electrolytes. Also about What to see & What to do in cases of Electrolytes Imbalances.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
1. Major extracellular and
intracellular electrolytes
What are electrolytes?
• The body fluids are solutions of inorganic & organic solutes
• The concentration, balances of the various components are
maintained in order for cells and tissues to have constant
environment
• For homeostasis, there is a regulatory mechanisms which
control pH, ionic balances, osmotic balances, etc.
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
• What if internal homeostasis fails?
• If body is itself unable to correct an electrolyte balance due to
change in composition of fluid
• Replacement therapy
• Electrolytes
• Acids & bases
• Blood products
• Carbohydrates, amino acids & proteins
Fluid compartment
• The electrolyte concentration will vary with particular fluid
compartment.
• The three compartments are :
• intracellular fluid (45-50% of body weight)
• interstitial fluid (12- 15% of body weight)
• plasma or vascular fluid (4-5% of body weight)
Abhijeet Dalvi
2. Fluid compartment
• Extracellular fluid: includes both interstitial
and vascular fluids.
• Three compartments are separated from
each other by membranes that are
• permeable to water and many organic and inorganic
solutes
• nearly impermeable to macromolecules such as
proteins
• selectively permeable to certain ions such as Na+,
K+, Mg2+
Major electrolytes
• Na, Cl, K, bicarbonate, Ca, Mg, PO4
• Cl is the major anion in the ECF and has no physiological function
• K, Ca, Mg
• maintain membrane potential for nerve conduction and muscle contraction
• generate the energy needed to maintain these potentials
• do the work of body functions and movement PO4
• the main reservoir is ICF and bone
• serum levels fall slowly when intake is low
• numerous hormonal and homeostatic mechanism exist to keep serum
levels with normal range
• serum levels is low in relation to intracellular concentration
• concentration in the serum controls physiological activities
Electrolytes in body fluid
• Ions formed when electrolytes dissolve in body fluids control the
osmosis of water between fluid compartments
• help maintain acid-base balance, and carry electrical current
• Plasma, interstitial fluid and ICF contain varying kinds and
amounts of ions
• The conc. of ions is expressed as mEq/L
• sodium ions are the most abundant ions in ECF: involved in impulse
transmission, muscle contraction, and fluid and electrolyte
balance
• The level of sodium is controlled by aldosterone, ADH
Electrolytes in body fluid
• Chloride ions are the major anions of the ECF.
• They play a role in regulating osmotic pressure and forming HCl in
gastric juice.
• Cl- level is controlled indirectly by ADH and by process that
increase or decrease renal absorption of Na+
• Potassium ions are the most abundant cations of ICF.
• They play a key role in the resting membrane potential and action
potential of neurons and muscle fibers.
• Help maintain ICF volume and contribute to regulation of pH.
• K+ level is controlled by aldosterone.
• Bicarbonate ions (HCO3
- )are the second most abundant anions in
the ECF. Most important buffer in the plasma
Abhijeet Dalvi
3. Major physiological ions
Sodium
• The principal cation in the extracellular fluid compartment
• Responsible for maintaining normal hydration and osmotic
pressure
• More than adequate amount of sodium are contained in daily diet
with complete absorption from intestinal tract
• Excess sodium is excreted by the kidneys
• Renin is a proteolytic enzyme responsible for 80-85%
reabsorption of sodium at glomerular filtration
• Renin cleaves linear protein and forms angiotensin I, which is
cleaved to form Angiotensin II, stimulate aldesterone from
adrenal cortex
Sodium
• Hyponatremia
• Extreme urine loss as observed in Diabetes insipidus (pituitary origin)
• Metabolic acidosis- sodium is excreted
• Addison’s disease- decrease excretion of antidiuretic hormone,
aldosterone
• Diarrhea, vomiting
• Kidney damage
• Hypernatremia
• Hyperadrenalism (Cushing syndrome) aldosterone production
• Severe dehydration
• Certain brain injury
• Excess treatment with sodium salt
Sodium
• Good correlation between sodium content of tissue and
hypertension
• If body is unable to eliminate sodium, the concentration starts to
increase & hence water will be retained in tissues to maintain
osmotic balance
• Edema results- puffy appearance with swelling, at lower
extremities
• Buildup of fluid puts added burden on heart which may be
aggravated if heart is also diseased
• Treatment- low salt diet, diuretics, cardiotonic drugs, etc.
• Sodium free salt substitute (Neocurtasal, Co-Salt)
Abhijeet Dalvi
4. Sodium
Neocurtasal Co-salt
Potassium chloride Chloine
Glutamic acid Potassium chloride
Potassium glutamate Ammonium chloride
Calcium silicate Tricalcium phosphate
Tribasic calcium phosphate
Potassium iodide
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food source RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Sodium
(Na+)
1.8g/Kg
Table salt, salty
foods, animal food,
milk, baking soda,
baking powder, some
vegetables
3-5 g Readily absorbed,
extracellular,
excreted in urine
& sweat,
aldosterone
increases
reabsorption in
renal tubules
Buffer constituent,
acid base balance,
osmotic pressure,
CO2 transport, cell
membrane
permeability,
muscle irritability
Dehydration,
acidosis, tissue
atrophy, excess
leads to edema,
hypertension
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Potassium
• Major intracellular cation, 23 times higher than the
concentration of potassium in extracellular fluid
compartment
• Active transport mechanism (Na+/K+pump)
• During transmission of nerve impulse, potassium leaves the
cell and sodium enters the cell
• Potassium is rapidly absorbed, excess K+ is rapidly excreted
by kidney
Abhijeet Dalvi
5. Potassium
• Hypopotassemia (Hypokalemia)
• Change in myocardial function
• Flaccid and feeble muscle
• Low blood pressure
• It can occur from vomiting, diarrhea, burns, hemorrhages, diabetic coma,
IV infusion of solution lacking K+, alkalosis, over use of thiazide diuretic
• Alternation in ECG,
• Histological changes in myocardium
Hyperpotassemia
• Movement of potassium into cells as protons move out of the cell into ECF
• Occur during kidney damage
• Cessation of heart beat
Element &
Total
amount in
human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Potassium
(K+)
2.6 g/Kg
Vegetables,
fruits, whole
grain, meat,
milk, legumes
1.5-4.5 g Readily absorbed,
intracellular,
excreted by
kidney
Buffer constituent,
acid base balance,
osmotic pressure,
CO2 transport,
membrane
transport,
neuromuscular
irritability
Acidosis, renal
damage
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Calcium
• The normal concentration of Ca2+ in plasma is 9.4 mg/100 mL
• 99% body calcium is found in bones
• Hypocalcemia is a below-normal level of Ca2+ in the extracellular
fluid, and hypercalcemia is an above-normal level of Ca2+ in the
extracellular fluid
• Major symptoms develop when the extracellular concentration of
Ca2+ declines below 6 mg/100 mL or increases above 12 mg/100
mL
• Nerve and muscle tissue undergo spontaneous action potential
generation
• dibasic phosphate (CaHPO4), carbonate, oxalate, sulfate salts
Calcium
• Calcium absorption is controlled by parathyroid hormone &
metabolite of vitamin D
• Parathyroid hormone increases extracellular Ca2+ levels and
reduces extracellular phosphate levels
• vitamin D is converted to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, or
active vitamin D
• Active vitamin D acts to increase Ca2+ absorption across the
intestinal mucosa
Abhijeet Dalvi
6. Calcium
• Hypocalcemia
• Caused by hypothyroidism, Vitamin D deficiency, osteoblastic
metastasis, steatorrhea, Cushing’s syndrome, acute pancreatitis,
acute hyperphosphatemia
• Bone degeneration- osteoporosis (treatment- increase calcium and
vit. D intake, increase phosphate, administration of NaF, calcitonin)
• Pagets disease- initial phase of decalcification and softening of
bone followed by calcium deposition with resultant thickening of
deformity (treatment- phosphate salt and or calcitonin)
Calcium
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food source RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Calcium
(Ca++)
22g/Kg
Milk, milk products,
fish bones (cooked)
0.8 g Poorly absorbed
according to body
need, absorbed
aided by vitamin D,
lactose acidity;
hindered by
excess fat,
oxalate;
parathyroid
hormone mobilizes
bone Ca+2
Formation of
appetite in
bones, teeth;
blood clotting;
cell membrane
permeability;
neuromuscular
irritability
Rickets (child),
poor growth,
osteoporosis
(adults),
hyperexcitability
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Magnesium
• Second most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid compartment &
forth most abundant cation in body
• 50% of body magnesium is combined with calcium & phosphorus in
bone
• Essential components of many enzymes involving phosphate
metabolism
• Required for smooth functioning of neuromuscular system
• Deficiency took place due to
• Malnutrition
• Dietary restriction
• Chronic alcoholism
• GI diseases
Abhijeet Dalvi
7. Element &
Total
amount in
human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations of
deficiency
Magnesium
(Mg+2)
0.5 g/Kg
Chlorophyl, nuts,
legumes, whole
grain
350mg Absorbed,
competes with
Ca+2 for
transport
Cofactor for
PO4
-2
transferring
enzymes,
constituents of
bones, teeth,
decrease
neuromuscular
irritability
Magnesium
conditioned
deficiency,
muscular tremor,
confusion,
vasodilatation,
hyperirritability
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Phosphate
• HPO4
- is principal anion in intracellular fluid compartment
• Hexose is metabolized as phosphate ester
• ATP is body’s mean of storing potential chemical energy
• HPO4
-2/H2PO4
- is an important buffer system
• Required for proper calcium metabolism
• Essential for normal tooth and bone development (hydroxyapatite)
• Only dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4
-) anion will be absorbed
from intestine
Phosphate
• ‘ortho’ indicate the most highly
‘hydroxylated’ known form of acid
Phosphoric acid
Meta phosphoric acid
• metaphosphoric acid refers to
product resulting from release of one
equivalent of water molecule
intramolecularly
Pyrophosphoric acid
Phosphate
Hypophosphatemia
• Not considered as problem since
balance diet has q.s. phosphate
• Person receiving nutrional,
caloric requirement by IV
Hyperphosphatemia
• In hypervitaminosis D
• Renal failure due to inability to
excrete phosphate into urine
• Hyperthyroidism
• Treatment‐
• Aluminium hydroxide gel for long
term
Abhijeet Dalvi
8. Element &
Total
amount in
human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Phosphate(
PO4-3)
12 g/Kg
Milk, milk
products, egg
yolk, meat, whole
grains,
legumes,nuts
3-5 g Readily absorbed,
excreted by kidney
Constituents of
bones, teeth,
constituents of
buffers, ATP, NAD,
FAD, metabolic
intermediates,
nucleotides,
phospholipids,
phosphoproteins,
Osteomalacia;
renal rickets,
cardiac
arrhytmia
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Chloride
• Major extracellular anion, responsible for maintaining proper
hydration, osmotic pressure
• Maintaining normal cation/ anion balance in vascular and
interstitial fluid compartment
• Chloride is being removed by glomerular filtration
• Hypochloremia
• Inflammation of kidney
• Metabolic acidosis
• Hyperchloremia
Chloride
• Hypochloremia
• Inflammation of kidney
• Metabolic acidosis in diabetes mellitus, renal failure
• Prolonged vomiting with loss of chloride as a gastric acid
• Hyperchloremia
• In dehydration
• Decreased renal blood flow in heart failure
• Severe renal damage
• Excessive chloride intake
Element &
Total
amount in
human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Chloride
(Cl-)
50 mEq/Kg
Animal foods,
table salt
5-10
g/Kg as
NaCl
Rapid
absorption,
excreted in
urine, high renal
threshould
Electrolyte, osmotic
balance, gastric HCl,
acid- base balance
Hyperchloremic
alkalosis
(Pernicious
vomiting)
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Abhijeet Dalvi
9. Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food source RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Iron
(Fe++/
Fe+++)
75mg/Kg
Liver, meat, egg
yolk, green leafy
vegetables, whole
grain, enriched
cereals,
10 mg
male;
18 mg
female
Absorbed
according to body
need; aided by HCl,
ascorbic acid
Constituent of
Hb, myoglobin,
catalase,
ferredoxin,
cytochrome,
electron
transport,
enzyme cofactor
Anemia,
hypochromi; c
pregnancy
demands, excess
leads to
hemochromatosis
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations of
deficiency
Iodine
(I-)
Seafoods,
iodized salt
140 g male;
100 g female
Concentrates in
thyroid
Constituents of
thyroxine,
triiodothyronine
, regulates
extracellular
oxidations
Goiter
(hyperthyroidism),
creatinism
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element &
Total
amount in
human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Zinc (Zn+2)
28 mg/Kg
Liver, pancreas,
shelllfish, widely
distributed in
animal, plants
tissues
10-15 mg 1-2 mg absorbed Constituents of
insulin, carbonic
anhydrase,
carboxypeptidase,
lactic
dehydrogenase,
alkaline
phosphatase
Anemia,
stunned
growth,
hypogonadism
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Copper
(Cu++)
2mg/Kg
Liver, kidney,
egg yolk, whole
grain
2-3 mg Limited absorption,
transport by
ceruloplasmin, stored in
liver, excreted via bile
Formation of Hb;
constituent of
oxidase enzyme
(tyrosinase,
cytochrome
oxidase, ascorbic
acid oxidase)
Hypochromic
anemia,
excessive
hepatic storage
in Wilson disease
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Abhijeet Dalvi
10. Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations of
deficiency
Cobalt
(Co+2)
3mg
Liver,
pancreas
1-2 mg Limited
absorption;
stored in liver;
excreted via bile
Constituent of
vitamin B12
Anemia in animals;
deficiency as
vitamin B12 –
pernicious anemia;
Excess leads to
polycythemia
(increase in no. of
RBCs)
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Molybde
num (Mo)
5mg/Kg
Liver, kidney,
whole grain,
legumes, leafy
vegetables
Trace Readily stored &
excreted in urine and
bile
Constituent of
xanthin oxidase,
alcohol
dehydrogenase
Unknown
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations of
deficiency
Chromiu
m
(Cr+3)
Liver, animal
and plant
tissue
traces Involved in
carbohydrate
utilization
Unknown, possible
relation to
cardiovascular
disease
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Element
& Total
amount
in human
body
Best food
source
RDA Absorption &
Metabolism
Principle
metabolic
functions
Clinical
manifestations
of deficiency
Fluoride
(F)
Seafoods,
some
drinking
water
1mg
1ppm in
drinking water
Easily absorbed,
excreted in urine,
deposited in bones,
teeth
Constituent of
fluoroapetite-
tooth enamel
Dental caries,
osteoporosis,
excess leads to
mottled enamel
Major Intra- and Extracellular
Electrolytes
Abhijeet Dalvi
11. Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Sodium replacement-
• Sodium chloride*
• It is a salt of extracellular fluid
• Uses range from replacement therapy
• Manufacture of isotonic solutions to flavour enhancers
• For isotonicity salt conc. should be 0.9% w/v
• Isotonic solutions are used as wet dressing, irrigating body
cavities, or tissues, as injections
Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Sodium replacement-
• Sodium chloride(NaCl, Mol. Wt. 58.44)*
• Colourless cubic crystals or white crystalline powder, saline
taste, deliquescent
• Soluble in water, slightly more soluble in boiling water,
soluble in glycerine, slightly soluble in alcohol
• Buildup of excessive extracellular fluid due to
administration of isotonic sodium chloride may lead to
pulmonary and peripheral edema
Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Sodium replacement-
• Hypotonic solutions are administered for maintenance
therapy
• Dose- oral , 1g three time a day
• IV infusion, 1 L of 0.9% NaCl solution,
• Topically to wounds, body cavities, as 0.9% solution for irrigation
• First aid treatment in poisoning
Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Potassium replacement-
• Potassium chloride(KCl, Mol.Wt. 74.56)
• Colourless, elongated, prismatic, or cubic crystals, or white
granular powder
• Odourless, saline taste, stable in air
• Freely soluble in water, more soluble in boiling water,
insoluble in alcohol
• KCl inj., KCl tab., Ringer inj., Lactated ringer inj., Lactated
potassium saline inj.
Abhijeet Dalvi
12. Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Potassium replacement-
• Potassium chloride(KCl, Mol.Wt. 74.56)
• It’s drug of choice for oral replacement of potassium, preferably
as a solution
• It is irritating to GIT, hence must be given in well diluted
• In severe hypopotassemia, injections of KCl should be give with
close monitoring of serum K+ concentration, ECG, urinary output
• As an antidote in digitalis intoxication, Menier’s syndrome (inner
ear disorder causing vertigo)
• As adjunct to drug used in treatment of Mysthenia gravis
(skeletal muscle weakness)
Electrolytes used in replacement
therapy
• Calcium gluconate(Mol wt. 430.88)
• White, crystalline, odourless, tasteless, granules or powder,
stable to air
• Solution are neutral to litmus, sparingly soluble in water,
freely soluble in boiling water, and insoluble in alcohol, many
organic solvents
• Choice for hypocalemia- when given orally, its is non-
irritation, hence orally as well as IV can be given
Physiology of acid base balance
• The normal pH of systemic arterial blood is 7.35-7.45
• Arterial blood is 7.4
• Venous blood and interstitial fluid is 7.35
• Intracellular fluid is 7.0
• Important part of homeostasis because cellular metabolism depends on enzymes,
and enzymes are sensitive to pH.
• The important buffer systems include proteins, carbonic acid‐bicarbonate buffers
• pH is maintained by buffers. and phosphates.
Acid‐Base Balance
• pH is maintained by buffers.
and phosphates.
The important buffer systems include proteins, carbonic acid‐bicarbonate buffers
• Homeostasis of pH is maintained by buffer systems, via exhalation of carbon dioxide, and via kidney excretion of
H+ and reabsorption of HCO3 .
‐
• The overall acid‐base balance is maintained by controlling the H+ conc. of body fluids, especially ECF.
Abhijeet Dalvi
13. Physiology of Acid Base Balance
• The principal buffer systems of the body fluid are
• Protein buffer system
• Carbonic acid- bicarbonate buffer system
• Phosphate buffer system
Physiology of Acid Base Balance
• Protein buffer system
• Most abundant buffer in intracellular fluid and blood plasm
• e.g. Hb is a good buffer within red blood cells; albumin is main protein
in blood plasma
• Proteins are composed of amino acids, organic molecules that contain
at least one carboxyl group and at least one amino group, functional
components of protein system
Physiology of Acid Base Balance
• Protein buffer system
• Most abundant buffer in intracellular fluid and blood plasm
• e.g. Hb is a good buffer within red blood cells; albumin is main protein
in blood plasma
Electrolyte Combination therapy
• Inability of patient to take food
• Infusions containing Glucose and saline
• Mixture of electrolyte if patient is deficient of them
• Fluid maintenance
• Electrolyte replacement
• IV administration
• Fluid maintenance : 5% glucose, help reduce urea, ketone body, phosphate,
(starvation)
• Fluid loss, vomitting, diarrohea, dehydration
• Sod. Lactate inj, Compound NaCl inj, compound Sod. Lactate inj.
Abhijeet Dalvi
14. Electrolytes in combination therapy
• Infusions
• In short term therapy, infusion of std. glucose & saline is
adequate
• when deficits are severe, solutions containing additional
electrolytes are required
• Fluid maintenance- maintenance therapy with IV fluid to
supply normal requirement of water, electrolytes
• All maintenance dose should contain atleast 5% dextrose
• This minimizes buildup of those metabolites associated with
starvation- urea, phosphate, ketone bodies
Electrolytes in combination therapy
• Electrolyte replacement- when there is heavy loss of water
& electrolytes as in prolonged fever, severe vomiting,
diarrhea Maintenance
solution
Rapid initial
replacement
therapy
Subsequent
replacement
therapy
25‐30 mEq/l Na 130‐150 mEq/l Na 40‐120 mEq/l Na
15‐20 mEq/l K 4‐12 mEq/l K 16‐35 mEq/l K
22 mEq/l Cl 98‐ 109 mEq/l Cl 30‐103 mEq/l Cl
20‐23 mEq/l HCO3 28‐55 mEq/l HCO3 16‐53 mEq/l HCO3
3 mEq/l Mg 3‐5 mEq/l Ca 0‐5 mEq/l Ca
3 mEq/l P 3 mEq/l Mg 3‐6 mEq/l Mg
0‐13 mEq/l P
Ringers’ solution (IP 2007)
• It is a Compound Sodium Chloride Solution
• solution containing
• 0.86 per cent w/v of Sodium Chloride,
• 0.03 per cent w/v of Potassium Chloride and
• 0.033 per cent w/v of Calcium Chloride in Purified Water
• Is a clear, colourless solution.
Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS)
• Contains anhydrous glucose, sodium chloride, potassium chloride and sodium
bicarbonate/sodium citrate
• Intended for the prevention and treatment of dehydration due to diarrhoea,
including maintenance therapy
• Are dry preparations to be mixed in specific amounts of water
• Used for oral rehydration therapy
• Home version: 1 tablespoon salt + 2 tablespoons sugar in 1 L of water
• ORS and zinc are recommended by the WHO and UNICEF to be used
collectively to ensure the effective treatment of diarrhoea
• ORS replaces the essential fluids and salts lost through diarrhoea
• Zinc decreases the duration and severity of an episode and reduces the risk of
recurrence in the immediate short term
Abhijeet Dalvi
15. Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS)
• ORS and zinc are highly effective and affordable products for treatment of childhood diarrhoea that
could prevent deaths in up to 93% of diarrhoea cases.
• ORS is included in WHO’s Essential Medicines List, Priority Medicines for Mothers and Children and Life-Saving
• Commodities for Women and Children.
• In 2005, WHO and UNICEF recommended a switch from the standard ORS to an improved lower-osmolarity
formulation (with a total osmolarity of 245 mOsm/L, instead of the previous standard ORS with a total
osmolarity of 311 mOsm/L), be combined with zinc supplementation.
• ORS is a powder for dilution in 200 mL, 500 mL, and 1 L. Products are packed in hermetically sealed, laminated
• sachets. The sachets may be made of multiply laminations with aluminum foil or polyethylene foil.
• The multiply laminated aluminum foil sachet is usually recommended for ORS. A compound of polyethylene
(inside), aluminum (middle), and polyester or any other suitable coating compound (outside) has proved to be a
satisfactory combination for packing ORS.
ORS (IP2007)
• Oral Rehydration Salts are dry, homogeneously mixed powders containing
Dextrose, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride and either Sodium Bicarbonate
or Sodium Citrate for use in oral rehydration therapy after being dissolved in the
requisite amount of water
• may contain suitable flavouring agents and, where necessary, suitable flow agents in the minimum quantity
required to achieve a satisfactory product.
• may not contain artificial sweetening agents like mono- and/or polysaccharides.
• If saccharin/saccharin sodium or aspartame is used in preparations meant for
paediatric use, the concentration of saccharin should be such that its daily intake
is not more than 5 mg/kg of body weight and that of aspartame should be such that
its daily intake is not more than 40 mg/kg of body weight.
ORS (IP 2007)
• Strength. A formulation of reduced osmolarity (given below) recommended by the World Health
• Organization (WHO) for the Diarrhoeal Diseases Control Programme, and of the United Nations
• Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
• Composition of the formulation in terms of the amount, in g, to be dissolved in sufficient water to
produce 1000 ml
• Sodium chloride 2.6
• Dextrose OR 13.5
• Dextrose Monohydrate 14.85
• Potassium chloride 1.5
• Sodium citrate 2.9
ORS
• These criteria are listed below; they refer to the desired characteristics of the
solution after it has been prepared according to the instructions on the packet:
• Total substance concentration (including that contributed by glucose) should be
within the range of 200–310 mmol/L.
• ■ Individual substance concentration:
• Glucose should at least equal that of sodium but should not exceed 111 mmol/L.
• Sodium should be within the range of 60–-90 mEq/ or mmol/L.
• Potassium should be within the range of 15–25 mEq/ or mmol/L.
• Citrate should be within the range of 8–12 mmol/L.
• Chloride should be within the range of 50–80 mEq/ or mmol/L.
Abhijeet Dalvi
16. Acids, Bases and Buffers: Buffer equations and buffer capacity in
general, buffers in pharmaceutical systems, preparation, stability,
buffered isotonic solutions, measurements of tonicity, calculations
and methods of adjusting isotonicity.
Major extra and intracellular electrolytes: Functions of major
physiological ions, Electrolytes used in the replacement therapy:
Sodium chloride*, Potassium chloride, Calcium gluconate* and Oral
Rehydration Salt (ORS), Physiological acid base balance.
Dental products: Dentifrices, role of fluoride in the treatment of
dental caries, Desensitizing agents, Calcium carbonate, Sodium
fluoride, and Zinc eugenol cement.
Abhijeet Dalvi