Fluid and electrolyte imbalances can occur when fluid intake and output are not equal. Hypovolemia is a decreased fluid volume, while hypervolemia is an increased fluid volume. Symptoms of hypovolemia include thirst, low blood pressure, and decreased skin turgor. Treatment involves oral or IV fluid replacement depending on severity. Hypernatremia is a high serum sodium level over 145 mEq/L usually due to too much sodium or too little water. It can cause neurological symptoms and death. Treatment focuses on lowering the sodium level through infusion of hypotonic fluids and use of diuretics.

1. Name: laxmi thapa &
ravisha pokhrel
B.sc nursing 3rd
year
College of medical
sciences, bharatpur

2.  Help maintain body
temperature and
cell shape
 Helps transport
nutrients gases
and wastes

7.  The desirable amount of fluid intake and loss in adults ranges from
1500 to 3500 mL each 24 hours. Ave= 2500 mL
 Normally INTAKE = OUTPUT
FLUID IMBALANCEFLUID IMBALANCE
• Changes in ECF volume = alterations in sodium balance
• Change in sodium/water ratio = either hypoosmolarity or hyperosmolarity
• Fluid excess or deficit = loss of fluid balance
• As with all clinical problems, the same pathophysiologic change is not of
equal significance to all people
• For example, consider two persons who have the same viral syndrome with
associated nausea and vomiting

8. It is an abnormally decreased or
increased fluid volume or rapid shift
from one compartment of body fluid
to another
Hypovolemia
Hypervolemia

9. • May occur as a result of:May occur as a result of:
• Reduced fluid intakeReduced fluid intake
• Loss of body fluidsLoss of body fluids
• Sequestration (compartmentalizing) of body fluidsSequestration (compartmentalizing) of body fluids
PathophysiologyPathophysiology
DECREASED FLUID VOLUMEDECREASED FLUID VOLUME
Stimulation ofStimulation of
thirst center inthirst center in
hypothalamushypothalamus
Person complains ofPerson complains of
thirstthirst
↑↑ ADH SecretionADH Secretion
↑↑ Water resorptionWater resorption
↓↓ Urine OutputUrine Output
Renin-Angiotensin-Renin-Angiotensin-
Aldosterone SystemAldosterone System
ActivationActivation
↑↑ Sodium andSodium and
Water ResorptionWater Resorption
↑↑ Urine specific gravity exceptUrine specific gravity except
with osmotic diuresiswith osmotic diuresis

10. acute weight loss
Oliguria
Low bp
Sunken eyes
Dizziness
Weakness
Decreased skin turgor
Concentrated urine

11. • Fluid Management
• Oral rehydration therapy – Solutions
containing glucose and electrolytes. E.g.,
Pedialyte, Rehydralyte.
• IV therapy – Type of fluid ordered depends on
the type of dehydration and the clients
cardiovascular status.
• Diet therapy – Mild to moderate dehydration.
Correct with oral fluid replacement.

12. Monitor & measures fluids at least
every 8 hours and sometimes hourly
Monitor daily body weight
Monitor vital signs
Observe for weak, rapid pulse and
orthostatic hypotension
Monitor urine concentration by
measuring urine specific gravity
Assess degree of oral and mucous
membrane moisture

13.  To prevent hypovolemia, the nurse
identifies patient at risk and takes
measures to minimize fluid loss. For
ex: the patient has diarrhoea,
measures should be implemented to
control diarrhoea and replacement
fluid administered. This includes
antidiarrheal medication and small
volume of oral fluids at frequent
intervals

14.  It refers to an isotonic expansion of
the ECF caused by abnormal
retention of water and sodium in
approximately the same proportion
in which they normally exist in the
ECF.
 It is most often secondary to an
increase in total body water.

15.  Common Causes:
Congestive Heart Failure
Early renal failure
IV therapy
Excessive sodium ingestion
SIADH
Corticosteroid

16.  Signs/Symptoms
Increased BP
Weight gain
Bounding pulse
Venous distention
Pulmonary edema
 Dyspnea
 Orthopnea (diff. breathing when
supine)
 crackles

17.  Pharmacological therapy
Diuretics such as thiazide diuretics and loop
diuretics
Thiazide diuretics: hydrochlorothiazide
Loop diuretics: furosemide, torsemide
 Potassium supplement

18. I/O chart at regular intervals to identify
excessive fluid retention
Breath sound are assessed at regular
intervals in at risk patient particularly if
parenteral fluid are being administered
Monitor the degree of edema in most
dependent parts of body such as feet &
ankles

19.  If renal function is so severely impaired
that pharmacologic agents cannot act
efficiently, other modalities are
considered to remove sodium and fluid
from the body. Haemodialysis or
peritoneal dialysis may be used to remove
nitrogenous wastes and control potassium
and acid base balance and to remove
sodium and fluid. Continuous renal
replacement therapy may also be
required

20.  IF it is important to detect FVE before the
condition become severe. Intervention
include promoting rest, restricting sodium
intake , monitoring parenteral fluid therapy
and administering appropriate medications
 Regular rest periods may be beneficial
because bed rest favours diuresis of fluid
 Sodium and fluid restriction should be
instituted as indicated
 Fowlers position should be maintain to
promote lung expansion

24. • Controls and regulates volume of body fluidsControls and regulates volume of body fluids
• Its concentration is the major determinant of ECF volumeIts concentration is the major determinant of ECF volume
•Participates in the generation and transmission of nerveParticipates in the generation and transmission of nerve
impulsesimpulses
• Eliminated primarily by the kidneys, smaller in fecesEliminated primarily by the kidneys, smaller in feces
• Salt intake affects sodium concentrationsSalt intake affects sodium concentrations
• Sodium is conserved through reabsorption in the kidneys, aSodium is conserved through reabsorption in the kidneys, a
process stimulated by aldosteroneprocess stimulated by aldosterone
• Normal value: 135-145 mEq/LNormal value: 135-145 mEq/L

25.  Refers to the serum sodium concentration less than 135 mEq/L
 Common with thiazide diuretic use, but may also be seen with
loop and potassium-sparing diuretics as well
 Occurs with marked sodium restriction, vomiting and diarrhea,
SIADH, etc. The etiology may be mulfactorial
 May also occur postop due to temporary alteration in
hypothalamic function, loss of GI fluids by vomiting or suction,
or hydration with nonelectrolyte solutions
 Postoperative hyponatremia is a more serious complication in
premenopausal women. The reasons behind this is unknown
 Therefore monitoring serum levels is critical and careful
assessment for symptoms of hyponatremia is important for all
postoperative patients

26. Sodium loss from the intravascular compartmentSodium loss from the intravascular compartment
Diffusion of water into the interstitial spacesDiffusion of water into the interstitial spaces
Sodium in the interstitial space is dilutedSodium in the interstitial space is diluted
Decreased osmolarity of ECFDecreased osmolarity of ECF
Water moves into the cell as a result of sodium lossWater moves into the cell as a result of sodium loss
Water moves into the cell as a result of sodium lossWater moves into the cell as a result of sodium loss
Extracellular compartment is depleted of waterExtracellular compartment is depleted of water
CLINICAL SYMPTOMSCLINICAL SYMPTOMS

27. Muscle
Weakness
APATHY
Postural
hypotensi
on
Nausea and
Abdominal
Cramps
Weight
Loss
In severe hyponatremia: mental confusion, delirium, shock and comaIn severe hyponatremia: mental confusion, delirium, shock and coma

28.  Contributing Factors
 Excessive diaphoresis
 Wound Drainage
 NPO
 CHF
 Low salt diet
 Renal Disease
 Diuretics

29.  Assessment findings:
 Neuro - Generalized skeletal muscle weakness.
Headache / personality changes.
 Resp.- Shallow respirations
 CV - Cardiac changes depend on fluid volume
 GI – Increased GI motility, Nausea, Diarrhea
(explosive)
 GU - Increased urine output
Plasma osmolality:
2Na + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8

30.  Interventions/Treatment
Restore Na levels to normal and prevent further
decreases in Na.
Drug Therapy –
 (FVD) - IV therapy to restore both fluid and Na.
If severe may see 2-3% saline.
 (FVE) – Administer osmotic diuretic (Mannitol)
to excrete the water rather than the sodium.
Increase oral sodium intake and restrict oral fluid
intake.

31. • A serum sodium level above 145 mEq/L is termedA serum sodium level above 145 mEq/L is termed
hypernatremiahypernatremia
• May occur as a result of fluid deficit or sodiumMay occur as a result of fluid deficit or sodium
excessexcess
• Frequently occurs with fluid imbalanceFrequently occurs with fluid imbalance
• Develops when an excess of sodium occurs without aDevelops when an excess of sodium occurs without a
proportional increase in body fluid or when waterproportional increase in body fluid or when water
loss occurs without proportional loss of sodiumloss occurs without proportional loss of sodium
• Risk Factors: excess dietary or parenteral sodiumRisk Factors: excess dietary or parenteral sodium
intake, watery diarrhea, diabetes insipidus, damageintake, watery diarrhea, diabetes insipidus, damage
to thirst center, too young, too old, those withto thirst center, too young, too old, those with
physical or mental status compromise, and peoplephysical or mental status compromise, and people
with hypothalamic dysfunctionwith hypothalamic dysfunction

32. Increased Sodium concentration in ECFIncreased Sodium concentration in ECF
Osmolarity risesOsmolarity rises
Water leaves the cell by osmosis and entersWater leaves the cell by osmosis and enters
the the extracellular compartmentsthe the extracellular compartments
Dilution of fluids in ECFDilution of fluids in ECF Cells are water depletedCells are water depleted
Suppression of aldosteroneSuppression of aldosterone
secretionsecretion
Sodium is exreted in theSodium is exreted in the
urineurine
CLINICAL SYMPTOMSCLINICAL SYMPTOMS

33. Dry, sticky mucousDry, sticky mucous
membranesmembranes
Firm, rubberyFirm, rubbery
tissue turgortissue turgor
Manic excitementManic excitement
TachycardiaTachycardia
DEATHDEATH

34.  Assessment findings:
Neuro - Spontaneous muscle twitches.
Irregular contractions. Skeletal muscle
wkness. Diminished deep tendon reflexes
Resp. – Pulmonary edema
CV – Diminished CO. HR and BP depend on
vascular volume.
 GU – Dec. urine output. Inc. specific gravity
 Skin – Dry, flaky skin. Edema r/t fluid
volume changes.

35.  Interventions/Treatment
Drug therapy
Lowering of serum sodium level by infusion of
hypotonic electrolyte solution
Diuretics also may be prescribed to treat
sodium gain
Desmopressin acetate to treat diabetes
insipidus if it is cause of hypernatremia
Diet therapy
 Mild – Ensure water intake

36.  The nurse should assess for abnormal looses of
water or low water intake and for large gains of
sodium as might occur with ingestion of OTC
medication that have high sodium content
 The nurse should obtain a medication history,
because some prescription medications have a
high sodium content
 The nurse also notes the patients thirst or
elevated body temperature and evaluates it in
relation to other clinical sign and symptoms

37. The more K, the less Na. The less K, the more NaThe more K, the less Na. The less K, the more Na
• Plays a vital role in such processes such as transmission ofPlays a vital role in such processes such as transmission of
electrical impulses, particularly in nerve, heart, skeletal,electrical impulses, particularly in nerve, heart, skeletal,
intestinal and lung tissue; CHON and CHO metabolism; andintestinal and lung tissue; CHON and CHO metabolism; and
cellular building; and maintenance of cellular metabolism andcellular building; and maintenance of cellular metabolism and
excitationexcitation
• Assists in regulation of acid-base balance by cellularAssists in regulation of acid-base balance by cellular
exchange with Hexchange with H
•Sources: bananas, peaches, kiwi, figs, dates, apricots,Sources: bananas, peaches, kiwi, figs, dates, apricots,
oranges, prunes, melons, raisins, broccoli, and potatoes, meat,oranges, prunes, melons, raisins, broccoli, and potatoes, meat,
dairy productsdairy products
•Normal value: 3.5 – 5 mEq/LNormal value: 3.5 – 5 mEq/L

38.  Serum level is below 3.5 meq/l (3.5
mmol/L) usually indicates a deficit in
potassium store

39. = Action Potential= Action Potential
Nerve and Muscle ActivityNerve and Muscle Activity
LowLow
ExtracellularExtracellular
K+K+
Increase inIncrease in
restingresting
membranemembrane
potentialpotential
The cellThe cell
becomes lessbecomes less
excitableexcitable

40. Sodium is retained in the body through resorption by theSodium is retained in the body through resorption by the
kidney tubuleskidney tubules
Potassium is excretedPotassium is excreted
Aldosterone is secretedAldosterone is secreted
Use of certain diuretics such as thiazides and furosemide, and corticosteroidsUse of certain diuretics such as thiazides and furosemide, and corticosteroids
Increased urinary outputIncreased urinary output
Loss of potassium in urineLoss of potassium in urine

42.  Administration od 40- 80 meq/day of
potassium is adequate in adult if there
are no abnormal losses of potassium
 Dietary intake of potassium in average
adult is 50-100meq/day
 When dietary intake is inadequate for any
reason, oral or IV potassium supplements
may be prescribed

43.  The nurse needs to monitor for its early
presence in patients at risk
 Fatigue, anorexia, muscle weakness,
decreased bowel motility, paraesthesia
and dysrhythmias are signal that warrant
assessing the serum potasium
concentration

44.  Interventions
 Assess and identify those at risk
 Encourage potassium-rich foods
 K+ replacement (IV or PO)
 Monitor lab values
 D/c potassium-wasting diuretics
 Treat underlying cause

45.  Serum potassium level greater than
5meq/L
 Less common than hypokalaemia , but it
is usually dangerous

46.  Contributing factors:
 Increase in K+ intake
 Renal failure
 K+ sparing diuretics
 Shift of K+ out of the cells

48.  In non acute situations, restriction of dietary
potassium and potassium containing
medications may correct the imbalance
 Administration either orally or by retention
enema of cation exchange resins
 EMERGENCY PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPYEMERGENCY PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY
 If serum potassium level are dangerously
elevated, it may be necessary to adm. IV
calcium gluconate
 Monitor blood pressure

49. Patients at risk for potassium excess need
to be identified and closely monitored for
signs of hyperkalemia
Nurse should monitor I/O and observe for
signs of muscle weakness and dysrythmias
Serum potassium level as well as BUN ,
creatinine, glucose & arterial blood gas
values are monitored for patient at risk
for developing hyperkalemia

50.  Interventions
Need to restore normal K+ balance:
Eliminate K+ administration
Inc. K+ excretion
 Lasix
 Kayexalate (Polystyrene sulfonate)
Infuse glucose and insulin
Cardiac Monitoring

51.  HYPOCHLOREMIA is a serum chloride level
below 97meq/L (97mmol/L)

52.  Irritability
 Tremors
 Muscle cramps
 Hyperactive deep tendon reflexes
 Slow shallow respiration
 Coma
 seizures

53. Correcting the cause of hypochloremia
and contributing electrolytes and acid-
base imbalances
Normal saline (0.9% sodium chloride) or
half strength saline(0.45% sodium
chloride) solution is administered by IV to
replace the chloride

54.  Monitor the patient I/O, arterial blood gas
values and serum electrolyte levels
 Changes in pts level of consciousness,
muscle strength and movement and
reported to the physician promptly
 Vital signs are monitored and respiratory
assessment is carried out frequently
 Educate the pt about food with high
chloride content which include tomato
juice, banana, eggs, cheese etc

55.  Serum level of chloride exceeds 107
meq/L
 Hypernatremia, bicarbonate loss and
metabolic acidosis can occur with high
chloride levels

56.  Tachypnea
 Weakness
 Lethargy
 Deep and rapid respiration
 Hypertension
 Dimnished cognitive ability
 If untreated it leads to:If untreated it leads to:
 Decrease in cardiac output, dysrhythmiasDecrease in cardiac output, dysrhythmias
and comaand coma

57.  Correcting the cause of underlying cause of
hyperchloremia and restoring electrolyte
fluid and acid base balance are essential
 Hypotonic IV solution may be administered to
restore balance
 Lactated ringers solution may be prescribed
to convert lactate to bicarbonate in liver
 Diuretics may be administered to eliminate
chloride as well
 Sodium chloride and fluid are restricted

58. Monitoring vital sign , arterial blood gas
values and I/O is important to assess the
patients status and the effectiveness of
treatment
Assessment findings related to
respiratory, neurologic and cardiac
systems are documented and changes are
discussed with physician
Educate about the diet

59.  More than 90% of body’s calcium is located in
the skeletal system
 The normal total serum calcium level is 8.6-
10.2 mg/dl (2.2 to 2.6 mmol/L)

60.  The serum calcium value lower than
8.6mg/dl
 Occurs in variety of clinical situation
 Older people and those with disabilities, who
spend on increased amount of time in bed
have an increased risk of hypocalcaemia
because bed rest increases bone resorption

61.  Contributing factors:
 Dec. oral intake
 Lactose intolerance
 Dec. Vitamin D intake
 End stage renal disease
 Diarrhea

62.  Contributing factors (cont’d):
Acute pancreatitis
Hyperphosphatemia
Immobility
Removal or destruction of parathyroid gland

63.  Numbness
 Tingling of finger, toes and circumoral region
 Anxiety
 Hyperactive deep tendon reflex
 Bronchospasm
 diarrhoea

64.  Assessment findings:
 Neuro –Irritable muscle twitches.
 Positive Trousseau’s sign.
 Positive Chvostek’s sign.
 Resp. – Resp. failure d/t muscle tetany.
 CV – Dec. HR., dec. BP, diminished
peripheral pulses
 GI – Inc. motility. Inc. BS. Diarrhea

67.  Interventions/Treatment
 Drug Therapy
 Calcium supplements
 Vitamin D
 Diet Therapy
 High calcium diet
 Prevention of Injury
 Seizure precautions

68.  Status of airway is clearly monitored
 Safety precaution to be taken if confusion is
present
 Educate the patient about hypocalcemia,
and calcium containing foods like milk,
yogurt, cheese, sea fruit, legumes, fruits
 Avoid overuse of laxatives and antacids

69.  serum calcium value greater than 10.2
mg/dl
 It is a dangerous imbalance when severe
infact, hypercalcemic crisis has a mortality
rate as high as 50% if not treated promptly

70.  Contributing factors:
 Excessive calcium intake
 Excessive vitamin D intake
 Renal failure
 Hyperparathyroidism
 Malignancy
 Hyperthyroidism

71.  Muscular weakness
 Constipation
 Anorexia
 Nausea & vomiting
 Dehydration
 Hypoactive deep tendon reflexes
 Calcium stones

72.  Assessment findings:
 Neuro – Disorientation, lethargy, coma, profound muscle
weakness
 Resp. – Ineffective resp. movement
 CV - Inc. HR, Inc. BP. , Bounding peripheral pulses,
Positive Homan’s sign.
Late Phase – Bradycardia, Cardiac arrest
 GI – Dec. motility. Dec. BS. Constipation
 GU – Inc. urine output. Formation of renal calculi

73.  Interventions/Treatment
 Eliminate calcium administration
 Drug Therapy
 Isotonic NaCL (Inc. the excretion of Ca)
 Diuretics
 Calcium reabsorption inhibitors (Phosphorus)
 Cardiac Monitoring

74.  Increasing patient mobility and encouraging
fluids
 Encourage to drink 2.8 to 3.8L of fluid daily
 Adequate fiber in diet is encouraged
 Safety precaution are implemented

75.  It is indicated by value below 2.5 mg/dl

76.  Contributing Factors:
 Malnutrition
 Starvation
 Hypercalcemia
 Renal failure
 Uncontrolled DM

77.  Paresthesia
 Muscle weakness
 Bone pain & tenderness
 Chest pain
 Confusion
 Cardiomyopathy
 Seizures
 Tissue hypoxia

78.  Assessment findings:
on lab analysis, serum phosphate level is less
than 2.5 mg/L
Serum magnesium may be decreased due to
increased urinary excretion of magnesium
X-ray may show skeletal changes of rickets

79.  MANAGEMENT
 Treat underlying cause
 Oral replacement with vit. D
 IV phosphorus (Severe)
 Serum phosphate level should be closely monitored
 Diet therapy
 Foods high in oral phosphate

80.  Identify the patient at risk for
hypophosphatemia
 Close monitoring of patient
 Vital signs and monitor serum phosphorous
level
 Check the level of consciousness
 Health education

81.  Serum phosphorus level that exceeds
4.5mg/dl (1.45 mmol/L)

82.  Tetany
 Tachycardia
 Anorexia
 Nausea & vomiting
 Muscle weakness
 Hyperactive reflexes

83.  Administration of vit.D such as calcitriol which is
available both oral ( Rocaltrol) & parenteral
( Calajex, paricalcitol forms)
 Calcium binding antacids
 Administration of amphojel with meals
 Restriction of dietary phosphate, forced diuresis
with loop diuretics volume replacement with
saline

84.  Surgery may be indicated for removal of
large calcium and phosphorus deposits
 Dialysis may also lower phosphorus

85.  The nurse monitor patient at risk for
hyperphosphatemia
 If low phosphorus diet is prescribed, patient is
instructed to avoid phosphorus rich food such as
hard cheese, cream, nuts, meats etc
 Nurse instruct patient to avoid phosphate
containing laxatives and enemas
 Monitoring for chnages in urine output

86.  HYPOMAGNESEMIAHYPOMAGNESEMIA
 Refers to below normal serum magnesiumRefers to below normal serum magnesium
concentration 1.3mg/dl (0.62 mmol/L)concentration 1.3mg/dl (0.62 mmol/L)
 It is frequently associated with hypokalemiaIt is frequently associated with hypokalemia

87.  Contributing factors:
 Malnutrition
 Starvation
 Diuretics
 Aminoglcoside antibiotics
 Hyperglycemia
 Insulin administration

88.  Neuromuscular irritability
 Mood changes
 Anorexia
 Vomiting
 Increased bp
 Increased deep tendon reflex
 insomnia

89.  Assessment findings:
*Neuro - Positive Trousseau’s sign. Positive
Chvostek’s sign. Hyperreflexia. Seizures
*CV – ECG changes. Dysrhythmias. HTN
*Resp. – Shallow resp.
*GI – Dec. motility. Anorexia. Nausea

90.  Mild magnesium deficiency can be corrected by
diet alone
 Magnesium salt can be administered orally in an
oxide or gluonate form
 Vital signs must be assessed frequently
 Calcium gluconate must be readily available to
treat
 IV.mgso4

91.  Observe for its sign and symptom
 Safety precaution are institued
 Due to dysphagia, patient should be screened
 Health education

92.  Serum magnesium level higher than 2.3
mg/dl
 It is a rare electrolyte abnormality because
kidney efficiently excrete magnesium

93.  Contributing factors:
 Increased Mag intake
 Decreased renal excretion

94.  Flushing
 Hypotension
 Muscle weakness
 Drowsiness
 Depressed respiration
 Cardiac arrest
 diaphoresis

95.  Assessment findings:
serum magnesium level is greater than 2.3mg/dl
creatinine clearance decreases to less than
3.0ml/min
ECG finding: prolonged PR interval
: tall T waves
: widened QRS

96.  Administration of magnesium
 Ventilatory support
 IV calcium gluconate
 Administration of loop diuretics and sodium
chloride
 Administration of lactated ringers IV solution

97.  Risk for hypermagnesemia are identified and
assessed
 Monitor vital signs, noting hypotension and
shallow respiration
 Observe for decreased deep tendon reflex and
changes in level of consciousness
 Caution is essential when preparing and
medicating magnesium containing fluid
parenterally