The document provides information on ethnography and historical research methods. It discusses key aspects of ethnography including conducting research in natural contexts, observing and interviewing participants, and collecting qualitative data through fieldwork. It also outlines steps in historical research such as defining the problem, locating sources, summarizing information, and evaluating sources. Some challenges of these methods include the time-intensive nature of ethnography and limitations of historical research in controlling for threats to validity.
Historical research involves systematically collecting and analyzing past data and evidence to understand and explain events or actions. It has several purposes, including helping people learn from the past, understanding present practices, and testing hypotheses. The key steps are defining the research problem, locating primary and secondary sources, summarizing and evaluating the sources, and presenting interpretations of the information. Historical research allows investigation of topics not possible through other methods but also has disadvantages like an inability to control for threats to validity from the past.
Historical research involves the systematic study of past events and problems through primary and secondary sources. It includes identifying a problem, collecting and evaluating data sources through external and internal criticism, synthesizing information, and interpreting conclusions. Some examples are essays from the Civil War, school attendance records over decades, and high school diplomas from the 1920s. While historical research provides perspective on current issues, it is limited by unavailable data and an inability to control past variables. Overall, understanding history assists in defining past situations and their modern meaning.
1. History can be defined in multiple ways including as events that have occurred, as documented records of the past, and as an academic field of study.
2. Studying history effectively requires systematically plotting one's study, creating outlines, and following up on unclear areas through rereading and sample exams.
3. When choosing a research topic, it should shed new light on human experiences, be original, feasible based on available sources and one's abilities, and have an appropriate scope and unifying theme.
This document provides an overview of upcoming assignments and exams for a history course. It outlines a Socratic seminar discussion on identity and borders over time. It then shares the student's developing dissertation research question and thesis statement exploring how perspectives of history and identity have changed regarding border disputes. Finally, it provides details on an upcoming TOK dissertation abstract and exam focusing on truth, logic, argument, ethics, and history.
Definition of Historical Research
View on Values of H. Research
Questions Pursued in H. Research
Characteristics of H. Research
Steps in Conducting H. Research
Strengths and Limitations of H. Research
Sample Study
Historical research examines past events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has happened. It has several purposes, including uncovering the unknown, answering questions, and understanding relationships between past and present. The process involves identifying a topic, collecting literature, evaluating materials, synthesizing data, and preparing a report. Sources may include issues, individuals, institutions, reforms, policies, or alternative interpretations. Information comes from documents, records, photographs, relics, and interviews. During synthesis, materials must meet tests of reliability and validity. When preparing the report, the researcher must avoid confusing correlation with causation, interpreting terms improperly, differentiating intended and actual behavior, and distinguishing intent from consequences.
Historical research involves a systematic process to critically examine past events through primary and secondary sources to accurately describe and interpret those events. It includes identifying a research problem, collecting and evaluating data sources, synthesizing information, interpreting findings, and formulating conclusions. Historical research aims to objectively determine what happened in the past and can provide perspective on current educational issues, practices, and theories. However, it is limited by an inability to control variables or directly affect past events and relies on available data sources.
This document discusses historical-comparative research methods. It provides examples of famous historical works and outlines the value of historical research in illuminating present and future trends. The document also details the steps in a historical-comparative research project and types of data sources. Finally, it discusses strengths, weaknesses, and evaluation of historical research methods.
Historical research involves systematically collecting and analyzing past data and evidence to understand and explain events or actions. It has several purposes, including helping people learn from the past, understanding present practices, and testing hypotheses. The key steps are defining the research problem, locating primary and secondary sources, summarizing and evaluating the sources, and presenting interpretations of the information. Historical research allows investigation of topics not possible through other methods but also has disadvantages like an inability to control for threats to validity from the past.
Historical research involves the systematic study of past events and problems through primary and secondary sources. It includes identifying a problem, collecting and evaluating data sources through external and internal criticism, synthesizing information, and interpreting conclusions. Some examples are essays from the Civil War, school attendance records over decades, and high school diplomas from the 1920s. While historical research provides perspective on current issues, it is limited by unavailable data and an inability to control past variables. Overall, understanding history assists in defining past situations and their modern meaning.
1. History can be defined in multiple ways including as events that have occurred, as documented records of the past, and as an academic field of study.
2. Studying history effectively requires systematically plotting one's study, creating outlines, and following up on unclear areas through rereading and sample exams.
3. When choosing a research topic, it should shed new light on human experiences, be original, feasible based on available sources and one's abilities, and have an appropriate scope and unifying theme.
This document provides an overview of upcoming assignments and exams for a history course. It outlines a Socratic seminar discussion on identity and borders over time. It then shares the student's developing dissertation research question and thesis statement exploring how perspectives of history and identity have changed regarding border disputes. Finally, it provides details on an upcoming TOK dissertation abstract and exam focusing on truth, logic, argument, ethics, and history.
Definition of Historical Research
View on Values of H. Research
Questions Pursued in H. Research
Characteristics of H. Research
Steps in Conducting H. Research
Strengths and Limitations of H. Research
Sample Study
Historical research examines past events or combinations of events to arrive at an account of what has happened. It has several purposes, including uncovering the unknown, answering questions, and understanding relationships between past and present. The process involves identifying a topic, collecting literature, evaluating materials, synthesizing data, and preparing a report. Sources may include issues, individuals, institutions, reforms, policies, or alternative interpretations. Information comes from documents, records, photographs, relics, and interviews. During synthesis, materials must meet tests of reliability and validity. When preparing the report, the researcher must avoid confusing correlation with causation, interpreting terms improperly, differentiating intended and actual behavior, and distinguishing intent from consequences.
Historical research involves a systematic process to critically examine past events through primary and secondary sources to accurately describe and interpret those events. It includes identifying a research problem, collecting and evaluating data sources, synthesizing information, interpreting findings, and formulating conclusions. Historical research aims to objectively determine what happened in the past and can provide perspective on current educational issues, practices, and theories. However, it is limited by an inability to control variables or directly affect past events and relies on available data sources.
This document discusses historical-comparative research methods. It provides examples of famous historical works and outlines the value of historical research in illuminating present and future trends. The document also details the steps in a historical-comparative research project and types of data sources. Finally, it discusses strengths, weaknesses, and evaluation of historical research methods.
The document discusses the purpose and process of historical research. Historical research involves examining past events and sources to develop an account of what occurred in the past. It helps inform current decisions by learning from past mistakes. The outcomes of historical research provide useful analysis and evaluation of past circumstances with the benefit of hindsight and distance from the original events.
This document discusses historical research. It defines historical research as the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe and understand past events without manipulating variables. The purposes are to learn from the past to apply to present problems, make predictions, and test hypotheses. Areas of historical research include period, world, regional, military, social, cultural, diplomatic, peoples, gender, and historiography history. Steps in research are isolating a problem, collecting primary and secondary sources, evaluating sources, formulating hypotheses, and reporting findings. Advantages are no experimenter bias while disadvantages include lack of control and interpreting sources is time-consuming.
Group presentation (ethnographic and historical research)Nordalilah Wahab
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, fragments of pottery or clothing, religious artifacts like pieces of bone from a saint, and historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to get a true representation of behaviors and perspectives rather than altered ones due to the researcher's presence. Rapport building also helps the researcher gain access and cooperation.
3. Triangulation in this context refers to using multiple
This paper is Peace research and source criticism; using historical methodology to information gathering. The methods of historical research was covered in this study and questions asked in source criticism
Historical Research is the systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.
This document outlines the historical method of research which involves collecting and analyzing primary and secondary sources to study past events and understand how they influence the present. The method has 7 stages: identifying a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting data, evaluating data, interpreting findings, reaching a conclusion, and decision making. It discusses tips for effective data collection, source criticism to validate sources, and limitations such as availability of information and potential for bias.
This document provides guidance on developing a topic for a history fair project. It discusses formulating a thesis statement and guiding questions based on historical context. Students are advised to use both primary and secondary sources to conduct balanced research that answers their guiding questions. The research process involves developing a premise, considering different perspectives, and using a variety of source types to tell the full story of an event from history.
Historical research involves systematically collecting and evaluating past data to understand and explain past events and actions. It aims to reconstruct what happened in the past as accurately as possible without manipulating variables. There are different types of historical research focused on topics like institutions, influences, or ideas. The process involves identifying a topic, collecting and evaluating primary and secondary sources, interpreting data, and synthesizing conclusions. Historical research is important as it can provide context, uncover unknown events, study causes and effects, and help understand present situations by examining relationships between past and present.
Historical research involves testing the accuracy of past observations and reports. It aims to place events in sequence, understand surrounding activities, preserve information, answer why things happened, make information public, and inform the present. Researchers define problems, collect primary and secondary sources, evaluate sources, form hypotheses, and report interpretations. Primary sources are eyewitness accounts and original objects, while secondary sources are copies or secondhand information. Researchers use external and internal criticism to validate sources by examining language, author knowledge, and intended meanings. Historical research allows investigation of topics not possible through other methods, but the researcher cannot control for validity threats or ensure representative samples.
This document provides an overview of historical research. It discusses that historical research focuses exclusively on past events and occurrences. The purposes of historical research include helping people learn from past successes and failures and testing hypotheses. The major steps of historical research are defining the problem, locating sources, summarizing and evaluating information, interpreting evidence, and drawing conclusions. Historical sources can include documents, records, oral statements, and relics, and can be primary or secondary. Researchers must evaluate sources using content analysis and external and internal criticism and exercise caution when generalizing.
Historical research involves carefully studying and analyzing past events and data to better understand how the past impacts the present. It relies on primary sources like documents, artifacts, and oral histories, as well as secondary sources. The research process involves collecting data, critically analyzing its authenticity and reliability, and then synthesizing the validated information to establish facts and test hypotheses. Some areas of historical study include specific time periods, geographical locations, and topics like military history. A variety of methods and tools are used, such as corroborating evidence, photography, revisionism, change logs, and examining human and social evolution.
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is any object whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past. Examples of relics include furniture, clothing, buildings, monuments, or equipment.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched in order to gain their trust and willingness to participate openly and honestly. This helps the researcher obtain accurate perspectives and behaviors from participants.
3. In the technique of triangulation, the researcher collects data using multiple sources rather than a single one. This includes using multiple methods like interviews, observations, and artifacts, as well as getting information from multiple informants.
4. The researcher is immersed in the
Definition of Historical Method/Research
Characteristics of Historical Method/Research
Steps on How to Conduct Historical Method/Research
Strengths and Limitations of Historical Method/Research
Sample Study
Historical methodology involves several key steps and considerations. It begins with conceptualizing an idea or research question. The researcher then locates and evaluates primary and secondary sources on the topic. Next, they organize the evidence and synthesize it into an explanatory model. Finally, they develop a narrative presentation of their findings. Proper historical analysis requires careful source criticism to establish reliability through factors like source proximity to events, corroboration, and lack of bias. The goal of historical reasoning is to assemble information into objective truths about the past.
The document discusses various aspects of historical research including:
1. The definition and areas of history as well as views on the value of historical research.
2. Historical research as a modern undertaking aimed primarily at critical search for truth.
3. The characteristics of contemporary historical research including methods such as formulating problems, gathering sources, and criticizing sources both externally and internally.
4. The strengths and limitations of historical research in only providing a partial view of the past based on surviving records.
This document outlines the key aspects of historical research. It defines historical research as the systematic collection of data to describe, explain and understand past events without manipulation of variables. The purposes of historical research include learning from past successes and failures, seeing if past approaches could apply to current problems, assisting in prediction, and testing hypotheses. The steps involve defining the problem, locating relevant historical sources like documents and oral statements, summarizing and evaluating these sources, and presenting interpretations of the information. Primary sources are created by direct witnesses, while secondary sources describe events through others. Historical research allows investigating unique topics but comes with difficulties controlling for threats to validity.
This document outlines four types of research designs: historical, descriptive, experimental, and case study. It then focuses on historical research, defining it as a scientific inquiry into past events using critical analysis to understand facts relevant to current issues. Historical research applies critical thinking to test other researchers' observations and seeks to establish the truth. It involves persistent and patient collection and verification of evidence from various sources to shed light on problems, continuity between past and present, and human achievements over time. The major steps of historical research are recognizing a problem, gathering relevant information, forming hypotheses, analyzing evidence, and reporting conclusions.
The 1st session of the presentation clarifies the necessary background concept to understand Historical Research.
The 2nd Session touches the procedures to the stages, sources, collection of data, analyzing them and writing a legit report on the whole research.
The whole presentation is designed to create a link between ancient educational practices and how the old practices influence our education today, in other words, how today's education is reformed through a transformation from a very early time.
This document discusses historical research methods. It defines historical research as the systematic collection and critical evaluation of past data to answer questions about causes and effects of past events. The key steps are: 1) collecting primary and secondary sources; 2) critically examining sources through external and internal criticism; 3) objectively presenting the facts without bias. Historical research allows investigation of topics not studyable otherwise, but limitations include lack of control over threats to validity and representation of samples. Areas of study include periods, locations, and military history.
Ethnography is a method used in anthropology and other social sciences to study cultures. It involves immersing oneself in a culture to gain a deep understanding of that culture's practices, values and worldview from the perspective of its members. The researcher spends extensive time observing and participating in the daily lives of the culture being studied. The result is a rich description of that culture that provides insight into how its members live and experience the world. Ethnography has also been applied to study software engineering cultures and practices by observing how teams work and interact to understand their processes and behaviors in context. While some criticize ethnography for being subjective, proponents argue it provides a valuable perspective for understanding cultures that cannot be gained through more detached
Historical research examines past events to create an account of what happened. It can uncover unknown details, answer questions, and help understand how the past relates to present cultures and events. Researchers use primary sources like documents, records, artifacts, and interviews that were created during the time being studied, as well as secondary sources that analyze primary sources. They determine if sources are authentic and accurately portray events by corroborating claims across sources, identifying source details, and analyzing context. This process of negative criticism establishes reliability and helps interpret what sources convey about the past.
Planning the Historical Research Paper: An Overview by Dr. Brian EbieBrian Ebie
Brian Ebie presents a fun look at an introduction to writing a historical research paper in education. Offering insights into basic points to consider before beginning the paper; data collection, and data analysis, this SlideShare will help the beginning researcher address the needs at the outset of the project. With a little help from Dr. Henry (Indiana) Jones, Jr. You'll enjoy this romp through paper writing.
The document discusses the purpose and process of historical research. Historical research involves examining past events and sources to develop an account of what occurred in the past. It helps inform current decisions by learning from past mistakes. The outcomes of historical research provide useful analysis and evaluation of past circumstances with the benefit of hindsight and distance from the original events.
This document discusses historical research. It defines historical research as the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe and understand past events without manipulating variables. The purposes are to learn from the past to apply to present problems, make predictions, and test hypotheses. Areas of historical research include period, world, regional, military, social, cultural, diplomatic, peoples, gender, and historiography history. Steps in research are isolating a problem, collecting primary and secondary sources, evaluating sources, formulating hypotheses, and reporting findings. Advantages are no experimenter bias while disadvantages include lack of control and interpreting sources is time-consuming.
Group presentation (ethnographic and historical research)Nordalilah Wahab
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, fragments of pottery or clothing, religious artifacts like pieces of bone from a saint, and historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to get a true representation of behaviors and perspectives rather than altered ones due to the researcher's presence. Rapport building also helps the researcher gain access and cooperation.
3. Triangulation in this context refers to using multiple
This paper is Peace research and source criticism; using historical methodology to information gathering. The methods of historical research was covered in this study and questions asked in source criticism
Historical Research is the systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.
This document outlines the historical method of research which involves collecting and analyzing primary and secondary sources to study past events and understand how they influence the present. The method has 7 stages: identifying a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting data, evaluating data, interpreting findings, reaching a conclusion, and decision making. It discusses tips for effective data collection, source criticism to validate sources, and limitations such as availability of information and potential for bias.
This document provides guidance on developing a topic for a history fair project. It discusses formulating a thesis statement and guiding questions based on historical context. Students are advised to use both primary and secondary sources to conduct balanced research that answers their guiding questions. The research process involves developing a premise, considering different perspectives, and using a variety of source types to tell the full story of an event from history.
Historical research involves systematically collecting and evaluating past data to understand and explain past events and actions. It aims to reconstruct what happened in the past as accurately as possible without manipulating variables. There are different types of historical research focused on topics like institutions, influences, or ideas. The process involves identifying a topic, collecting and evaluating primary and secondary sources, interpreting data, and synthesizing conclusions. Historical research is important as it can provide context, uncover unknown events, study causes and effects, and help understand present situations by examining relationships between past and present.
Historical research involves testing the accuracy of past observations and reports. It aims to place events in sequence, understand surrounding activities, preserve information, answer why things happened, make information public, and inform the present. Researchers define problems, collect primary and secondary sources, evaluate sources, form hypotheses, and report interpretations. Primary sources are eyewitness accounts and original objects, while secondary sources are copies or secondhand information. Researchers use external and internal criticism to validate sources by examining language, author knowledge, and intended meanings. Historical research allows investigation of topics not possible through other methods, but the researcher cannot control for validity threats or ensure representative samples.
This document provides an overview of historical research. It discusses that historical research focuses exclusively on past events and occurrences. The purposes of historical research include helping people learn from past successes and failures and testing hypotheses. The major steps of historical research are defining the problem, locating sources, summarizing and evaluating information, interpreting evidence, and drawing conclusions. Historical sources can include documents, records, oral statements, and relics, and can be primary or secondary. Researchers must evaluate sources using content analysis and external and internal criticism and exercise caution when generalizing.
Historical research involves carefully studying and analyzing past events and data to better understand how the past impacts the present. It relies on primary sources like documents, artifacts, and oral histories, as well as secondary sources. The research process involves collecting data, critically analyzing its authenticity and reliability, and then synthesizing the validated information to establish facts and test hypotheses. Some areas of historical study include specific time periods, geographical locations, and topics like military history. A variety of methods and tools are used, such as corroborating evidence, photography, revisionism, change logs, and examining human and social evolution.
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is any object whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past. Examples of relics include furniture, clothing, buildings, monuments, or equipment.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched in order to gain their trust and willingness to participate openly and honestly. This helps the researcher obtain accurate perspectives and behaviors from participants.
3. In the technique of triangulation, the researcher collects data using multiple sources rather than a single one. This includes using multiple methods like interviews, observations, and artifacts, as well as getting information from multiple informants.
4. The researcher is immersed in the
Definition of Historical Method/Research
Characteristics of Historical Method/Research
Steps on How to Conduct Historical Method/Research
Strengths and Limitations of Historical Method/Research
Sample Study
Historical methodology involves several key steps and considerations. It begins with conceptualizing an idea or research question. The researcher then locates and evaluates primary and secondary sources on the topic. Next, they organize the evidence and synthesize it into an explanatory model. Finally, they develop a narrative presentation of their findings. Proper historical analysis requires careful source criticism to establish reliability through factors like source proximity to events, corroboration, and lack of bias. The goal of historical reasoning is to assemble information into objective truths about the past.
The document discusses various aspects of historical research including:
1. The definition and areas of history as well as views on the value of historical research.
2. Historical research as a modern undertaking aimed primarily at critical search for truth.
3. The characteristics of contemporary historical research including methods such as formulating problems, gathering sources, and criticizing sources both externally and internally.
4. The strengths and limitations of historical research in only providing a partial view of the past based on surviving records.
This document outlines the key aspects of historical research. It defines historical research as the systematic collection of data to describe, explain and understand past events without manipulation of variables. The purposes of historical research include learning from past successes and failures, seeing if past approaches could apply to current problems, assisting in prediction, and testing hypotheses. The steps involve defining the problem, locating relevant historical sources like documents and oral statements, summarizing and evaluating these sources, and presenting interpretations of the information. Primary sources are created by direct witnesses, while secondary sources describe events through others. Historical research allows investigating unique topics but comes with difficulties controlling for threats to validity.
This document outlines four types of research designs: historical, descriptive, experimental, and case study. It then focuses on historical research, defining it as a scientific inquiry into past events using critical analysis to understand facts relevant to current issues. Historical research applies critical thinking to test other researchers' observations and seeks to establish the truth. It involves persistent and patient collection and verification of evidence from various sources to shed light on problems, continuity between past and present, and human achievements over time. The major steps of historical research are recognizing a problem, gathering relevant information, forming hypotheses, analyzing evidence, and reporting conclusions.
The 1st session of the presentation clarifies the necessary background concept to understand Historical Research.
The 2nd Session touches the procedures to the stages, sources, collection of data, analyzing them and writing a legit report on the whole research.
The whole presentation is designed to create a link between ancient educational practices and how the old practices influence our education today, in other words, how today's education is reformed through a transformation from a very early time.
This document discusses historical research methods. It defines historical research as the systematic collection and critical evaluation of past data to answer questions about causes and effects of past events. The key steps are: 1) collecting primary and secondary sources; 2) critically examining sources through external and internal criticism; 3) objectively presenting the facts without bias. Historical research allows investigation of topics not studyable otherwise, but limitations include lack of control over threats to validity and representation of samples. Areas of study include periods, locations, and military history.
Ethnography is a method used in anthropology and other social sciences to study cultures. It involves immersing oneself in a culture to gain a deep understanding of that culture's practices, values and worldview from the perspective of its members. The researcher spends extensive time observing and participating in the daily lives of the culture being studied. The result is a rich description of that culture that provides insight into how its members live and experience the world. Ethnography has also been applied to study software engineering cultures and practices by observing how teams work and interact to understand their processes and behaviors in context. While some criticize ethnography for being subjective, proponents argue it provides a valuable perspective for understanding cultures that cannot be gained through more detached
Historical research examines past events to create an account of what happened. It can uncover unknown details, answer questions, and help understand how the past relates to present cultures and events. Researchers use primary sources like documents, records, artifacts, and interviews that were created during the time being studied, as well as secondary sources that analyze primary sources. They determine if sources are authentic and accurately portray events by corroborating claims across sources, identifying source details, and analyzing context. This process of negative criticism establishes reliability and helps interpret what sources convey about the past.
Planning the Historical Research Paper: An Overview by Dr. Brian EbieBrian Ebie
Brian Ebie presents a fun look at an introduction to writing a historical research paper in education. Offering insights into basic points to consider before beginning the paper; data collection, and data analysis, this SlideShare will help the beginning researcher address the needs at the outset of the project. With a little help from Dr. Henry (Indiana) Jones, Jr. You'll enjoy this romp through paper writing.
Call of Duty: Black Ops was a first person shooter video game released in 2010 that sold over 25 million copies. It took place during the Cold War focusing on CIA clandestine operations. An extensive marketing campaign was used including trailers on sports games, partnerships with celebrities and Chrysler, and downloadable content to keep the game popular. The campaign aimed to reach the target demographic of young adult males and maximize sales through widespread promotion across media platforms.
Etnografi merupakan pendekatan penelitian yang mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasi sistem budaya atau kelompok sosial tertentu. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan observasi partisipan dan wawancara, sedangkan analisis data meliputi transformasi data berupa deskripsi, analisis, dan interpretasi budaya yang dikaji. Laporan penelitian etnografi umumnya memuat pendahuluan, prosedur penelitian, deskripsi budaya, analisis tema budaya, serta interpretasi
This document outlines 7 secrets for effective Wi-Fi planning: 1) Talk to stakeholders to understand requirements; 2) Use high-quality maps with proper scale and detail; 3) Consider 3D signal propagation between floors; 4) Coverage design is easier than ensuring proper channel separation to avoid overlap; 5) Adding more APs does not always improve capacity which is complex to calculate; 6) Factors like user devices, applications, and environment affect maximum capacity; 7) On-site surveys are sometimes faster than planning for certain challenging environments.
Quantitative research was the dominant research paradigm in education until the 1980s when debates increased between quantitative and qualitative approaches. Some researchers argued their approach was superior, with some purists arguing the approaches could not be combined due to differing worldviews. A research paradigm encompasses ontology, epistemology, and methodology. Quantitative research aims to quantify data, test theories through hypotheses, and use statistics to support or refute hypotheses. It emphasizes objectivity, generalizability, and identifying causal relationships through controlled experiments and standardized procedures.
Analisa data penelitian kualitatif melibatkan proses pengorganisasian dan mengurutkan data ke dalam kategori untuk menemukan pola dan tema. Proses analisis meliputi reduksi data, penyajian data, dan penarikan kesimpulan yang berlangsung secara terus-menerus selama penelitian. Tujuannya adalah memahami hubungan antar bagian data dan keseluruhan untuk mengembangkan hipotesis atau teori.
This presentation is about Quantitative Research, its types and important aspects including advantages and disadvantages, characteristics and definitions.
This document discusses key aspects of qualitative case study research. It outlines that case studies allow for an in-depth exploration of a phenomenon within its real-life context. The document discusses different approaches to case studies by researchers like Yin, Stake and Creswell. It also addresses important considerations for case study research like purposefully defining the case, collecting multiple sources of data, ensuring validity and ethics, and producing engaging written reports for academic audiences.
Sampling Methods in Qualitative and Quantitative ResearchSam Ladner
This document discusses different types of sampling methods used in qualitative and quantitative research. It outlines the different assumptions researchers make regarding sampling in qualitative versus quantitative studies. A variety of sampling techniques are described for different research contexts such as ethnographic fieldwork, interviews, and content analysis.
Qualitative and quantitative methods of researchJordan Cruz
The document compares and contrasts qualitative and quantitative research methods. It discusses that qualitative research aims to understand social interactions through smaller, non-randomly selected samples, while quantitative research seeks to test hypotheses and make predictions using larger, randomly selected samples and specific variables. It also outlines the different types of data collected, forms of analysis, roles of researchers, and final reporting structures between the two methods.
The document discusses various types of research including applied research, basic research, correlational research, descriptive research, ethnographic research, experimental research, and exploratory research. Applied research seeks practical solutions to problems, while basic research expands knowledge without a direct application. Correlational research examines relationships between variables without determining cause and effect. Descriptive research provides accurate portrayals of characteristics, and ethnographic research involves in-depth study of cultures. Experimental research establishes cause-and-effect through controlled manipulation of variables.
The document provides information on ethnography and historical research methods. It discusses key aspects of ethnography including conducting research in natural contexts, intensive observation and interviews, thick description, and interpreting meanings and functions of human actions. It also outlines steps in historical research such as defining the problem, locating relevant primary and secondary sources, summarizing information from sources, and evaluating sources. Examples of ethnography and historical studies in education are also provided.
This document defines ethnographic research and outlines the ethnographic research process. It discusses key characteristics of ethnographic research such as being conducted in a natural context and emphasizing everyday experiences through observation and interviews. The document also describes common ethnographic research techniques like triangulation, participant observation, and taking field notes. It provides examples of historical research studies and outlines the steps involved in historical research, including defining the problem, locating sources, summarizing information, and evaluating sources. Limitations of historical research discussed include relying on limited surviving records and not ensuring a representative sample.
Here are the key steps in qualitative data analysis:
1. Organizing the data by preparing transcripts of interviews, scanning field notes, sorting and arranging data into different types depending on the sources of information.
2. Immersing yourself in the data by reading through all the data to obtain a general sense of the information and reflect on its overall meaning.
3. Coding the data by going through the data line-by-line or paragraph by paragraph to identify and label meaningful excerpts that relate to your research questions.
4. Developing descriptions and themes by aggregating similar codes together to identify significant themes, patterns of meaning that come up across all the data sources.
5. Interrelating
Here are the key steps in qualitative data analysis:
1. Organizing the data by preparing transcripts of interviews, field notes, and other materials.
2. Immersing yourself in the data by reading and rereading the transcripts, notes, and documents to gain familiarity with them.
3. Generating initial codes by labeling concepts and themes that appear important.
4. Searching for themes by sorting the different codes and combining related ones into potential themes.
5. Reviewing the themes by checking if they adequately capture important concepts or if additional data needs to be coded.
6. Defining and naming themes by identifying the essence of each theme and determining what aspect of the data each theme
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods, including ethnography, participant observation, focus groups, and documentary review. It discusses the key differences between ethnography and observation, defines participant observation, and outlines some practical considerations and challenges for using this method such as accessing field sites, taking field notes, analysis, and writing up findings. Focus groups are described as bringing people together to discuss a topic while being observed or recorded. Documentary review involves analyzing various written documents for research purposes.
This document provides an overview of key characteristics and approaches in qualitative research methods. It discusses how qualitative researchers typically collect data in natural settings through methods like observations, interviews and documents. Researchers serve as the key instrument of data collection and analysis. Data analysis is an inductive process of identifying themes from the bottom-up. The meaning derived from the data represents the participants' perspectives rather than the researchers'. The design remains emergent and flexible. Reflexivity involves researchers reflecting on how their own backgrounds and experiences may shape their interpretations.
This case study examines the use of Facebook to engage students in understanding Shakespearean drama. Specifically, it involves 20 students in a drama course who will use Facebook to discuss and make meaning from Shakespeare's plays. The study aims to see how an online social network can facilitate learning literary texts. It is limited to this small group but could provide insights for how teachers can integrate technology into teaching. The case study will collect data on students' Facebook discussions and interpret how this platform supports comprehending difficult aspects of Shakespearean works.
1. The document discusses several qualitative research designs including ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, historical research, case study, feminist research, and action research.
2. Qualitative research aims to explore phenomena through words rather than numbers to gain an understanding from the participant's perspective.
3. The key types of qualitative research designs discussed are ethnography which studies culture, phenomenology which describes the meaning of lived experiences, and grounded theory which develops theories grounded in data.
This document provides an overview of qualitative research methods including phenomenology, ethnography, historical research, and case studies. It defines each method and provides examples of topics that have been studied using each approach. Phenomenology seeks to understand lived experiences, ethnography studies social groups and cultures, historical research interprets past events, and case studies provide an in-depth analysis of a specific situation. The document also contrasts qualitative and quantitative research.
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient tools, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious texts, and remnants of historical structures.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about the group's behaviors, perspectives and experiences in their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or research methods to develop
Here are the answers to your questions:
1. A relic is a surviving object or artifact from an earlier time, especially one of historical or sentimental interest. Four examples of relics are: ancient artifacts, pieces of clothing from historical figures, fragments of religious icons, and fragments of historical documents or manuscripts.
2. It is important to establish rapport with collaborators or the group being researched so that they feel comfortable with the researcher and act naturally during observations. This allows the researcher to obtain accurate and authentic data about people's everyday experiences and perspectives within their natural context. Rapport building helps participants be open and honest.
3. Triangulation in qualitative research refers to using multiple data sources or data collection methods to
Introduction
In life, there are universal laws that govern everything we do. These laws are so perfect that if you were to align yourself with them, you could have so much prosperity that it would be coming out of your ears. This is because God created the universe in the image and likeness of him. It is failure to follow the universal laws that causes one to fail. The laws that were created consisted of the following: ·
Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude states that you must show gratitude for what you have. By having gratitude, you speed your growth and success faster than you normally would. This is because if you appreciate the things you have, even if they are small things, you are open to receiving more.
Law of Attraction: The Law of Attraction states that if you focus your attention on something long enough you will get it. It all starts in the mind. You think of something and when you think of it, you manifest that in your life. This could be a mental picture of a check or actual cash, but you think about it with an image.
Law of Karma: the Law of Karma states that if you go out and do something bad, it will come back to you with something bad. If you do well for others, good things happen to you. The principle here is to know you can create good or bad through your actions. There will always be an effect no matter what.
Law of Love: the Law of Love states that love is more than emotion or feeling; it is energy. It has substance and can be felt. Love is also considered acceptance of oneself or others. This means that no matter what you do in life if you do not approach or leave the situation out of love, it won't work.
Law of Allowing: The Law of Allowing states that for us to get what we want, we must be receptive to it. We can't merely say to the Universe that we want something if we don't allow ourselves to receive it. This will defeat our purpose for wanting it in the first place.
Law of Vibration: the Law of Vibration states that if you wish on something and use your thoughts to visualize it, you are halfway there to get it. To complete the cycle you must use the Law of Vibration to feel part of what you want. Do this and you'll have anything you want in life.
For everything to function properly there has to be structure. Without structure, our world, or universe, would be in utter chaos. Successful people understand universal laws and apply them daily. They may not acknowledge that to you, but they do follow the laws. There is a higher power and this higher power controls the universe and what we get out of it. People who know this, but wish to direct their own lives, follow the reasons. Successful people don't sit around and say "I'll try," they say yes and act on it.
Chapter - 1
The Law of Attraction
The law of attraction is the most powerful force in the universe. If you work against it, it can only bring you pain and misery. Successful people know this but have kept it hidden from the lower class for centuries because th
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
Interpretive paradigm presentation by vicky & savithirisykeshea
This document provides an overview of the interpretive research paradigm, including its key assumptions, origins, methods, and evolution. It discusses interpretivism's focus on understanding meaning and interpretation through socially constructed realities. The document outlines interpretivism's ontology of multiple subjective realities and epistemology of dynamic, context-dependent meanings. It also summarizes common interpretive research methods like interviews and observations. Finally, it notes some challenges of interpretive research and criteria for evaluating interpretive studies.
Field research involves directly observing and interacting with people in natural settings to understand their lives and behaviors. The document discusses various aspects of conducting field research such as choosing a field site, gaining access, applying strategies like establishing relationships, collecting data through observation and note taking, and eventually exiting the field site. It also provides examples of typical field research techniques like conducting interviews and being a participant observer at events.
Here are some tips for conducting qualitative interviews:
- Build rapport by introducing yourself warmly and explaining the purpose of the interview in a clear, concise way.
- Ask open-ended questions to elicit detailed responses. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no.
- Be an active listener. Maintain eye contact, nod to show you're engaged, and avoid multitasking.
- Follow up with probing questions to get more depth, clarity or examples when needed ("Can you tell me more about that?" "What did you mean by...").
- Remain neutral and don't interject your own opinions. Let the interviewee do most of the talking.
- Be
This document discusses various types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and comparisons of these different approaches. For basic qualitative studies, the goal is to understand a phenomenon or experience from the participant's perspective through techniques like interviews and observation. Case study research provides an in-depth look at a single unit or case using multiple data sources. Content analysis examines written or visual materials to describe their characteristics and identify themes. Ethnographic research studies culture and social behavior of a group in their natural setting through immersion and observation.
The document discusses 8 types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and examples of each method, focusing on the goals, data collection techniques, and key characteristics of basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, and grounded theory research. The document is intended to inform readers about these common qualitative research approaches.
This document discusses various qualitative non-experimental research designs, including phenomenological research, ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies. It provides definitions, goals, characteristics, steps, and examples of each design. Qualitative research seeks to understand human experiences in depth rather than draw conclusions from large samples. The researcher observes phenomena as they naturally occur without manipulation.
The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach.
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This document discusses classroom management strategies and issues related to student discipline. It begins by highlighting the importance of organization, creating a positive learning environment, and developing a sense of community in the classroom. It then provides tips for maintaining good order and discussing communication approaches like empathetic listening. Specific challenges with secondary students and scenarios involving conflicts are presented, along with reflection questions. The document emphasizes the need for multiple perspectives and backup plans when addressing discipline situations. Overall, it focuses on establishing effective environments and responsive techniques for managing all students.
This study investigated factors that determine teacher job satisfaction in secondary schools in ABA Education Zone, South-East Nigeria. The researchers surveyed 512 teachers to identify factors related to school facilities, teacher characteristics, and human relations that influence job satisfaction. They found that teachers were less satisfied with advancement opportunities, compensation, supervision, human relations, and working conditions. Specifically, inadequate classroom environments and school facilities negatively impacted job satisfaction. The researchers recommended equipping school laboratories to improve science teaching and promote effective teacher job satisfaction.
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This document summarizes a study that investigated differences in job satisfaction between male and female secondary school teachers, and between teachers in urban versus rural schools. The study used a questionnaire to collect data from 785 teachers across 192 public high schools in one district. It found that female teachers reported higher job satisfaction than male teachers. It also found no significant difference in job satisfaction between urban and rural teachers. The document provides background on factors that can influence job satisfaction, such as gender, age, education level, and work environment. It reviews other research that has found both differences and no differences in job satisfaction based on these factors.
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
3. ETHNOGRAPHY
• The most complex of all research
• To obtain as holistic a picture as possible
• A holistic perspective of:
A particular group of society
Institution
Setting
Situation
Sort of description that can only emerge from
spending a lengthy amount of time intimately
studying and living in a particular social setting
(Van Maanen, 1982, p. 103-104)
4. • Conducted in a natural context.
• Emphasis on documenting everyday experiences
of individuals by observing and interviewing
• Involves intimate face-to-face interactions with
participants.
• Reflects participants’ perspectives and behaviour.
• Data is collected primarily through fieldwork
experiences.
• Uses multiple data sourced including both
quantitative and qualitative.
• Key tools : in depth interviewing & continual
observation
5. • Investigates a small number of cases in detail.
• Uses data analysis that involve the explicit
interpretation of the meanings and functions of human
actions
• Interpretations of people’s actions and behaviour that
are uncovered through the investigation of what they
actually do and the reason for doing it.
• Offers a representation or interpretation of people’s
lives and behaviour.
• Built on the points of understanding that occur
between the researcher and participants.
• Thick description
• Non-judgmental orientation (researcher refrain from
making value judgement)
6. REQUIREMENT
• the language of that culture
• first-hand participation & interpretation
• intensive work with a few informants from
that setting
7. CULTURE
• the beliefs, values, and attitudes that structure the
behavior patterns of a specific group of people
• at a minimum, similarity must be shared by a
significant number of members of a social group;
shared in the sense of being behaviorally
enacted, physically possessed, or internally thought
• Subculture: group having social, economic, ethnic, or
other traits distinctive enough to distinguish it from
others within the same culture or society
8. ETHNOGRAPHY
- Tribes
- Subcultures
- Public realm
- Organizations
Kinds of data:
- Interviews
- Field notes
- Texts
- Visual data
- Transcripts
What can be studied:
9. AIMS
1. Seeing: through the eyes of the people being observed
2. Description: paying attention to the mundane details
3. Contextualism : conveying messages in a complete manner so that
understand the wider social and historical context
4. Process: viewing social life as involving interlocking series of events
5. Flexible research design: adapting research methods to various
situations as they unfold
6. Avoiding early use of theories and concepts
11. DOING ETHNOGRAPHY
4 Separate Sets of Notes Needed:
1. Short notes made at the time
2.Expanded notes made as soon as possible
after the field session
3. A fieldwork journal to record problems
and ideas that arise during each stage of
field work
4.A provisional running record of analysis
and interpretation
(Spradley, 1979)
12. In order to increase reliability creating contact
summary sheets is suggested.
Why Important:
1. Guide planning
2. Suggests new or revised codes/themes
3. Coordinates several fieldworkers work
4. Serves as a reminder of the contact at a later
date
5. Serves as the basis for data analysis
13. Questions for Contact Summary Sheets:
1. What people, events, or situations were involved?
2. What were the main themes or issues in the contact?
3. Which research questions did the contact bear most centrally
on?
4. What new hypotheses, speculations, or guesses about the
field situations were suggested by the contact?
5. Where should the fieldworker place most energy during the
next contact, and what sorts of information should be
sought?
16. CRITIQUE OF ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
One of the most
valuable aspects is
the depth of
understanding
Can challenge ‘taken
for granted’
assumptions
DISADVANTAGES
Takes a long time
Does not have much
breadth
It can be difficult for
some to write up the
findings for a journal
article
17. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
Social researchers assumes a “learning role,” so
many scientific type questions will not work
when conducting social science research.
There are several methodological issues to
consider.
18. ISSUES
1. Defining a research problem
a) avoid early specification of definitions hypothesis
- puts too many constraints on what you’re
observing
b) develop animating questions to consider
- narrow and focus
- limit your research topic
2. Choosing a research site
a) “case the joint”
3. Gaining access:
- closed or private
- open or public
19. 4. Finding an identity
a. Observers may change the situation just by their
presence
5. Looking as well as listening
a. explain the situation as you would to a sighted
person who is blindfolded
6. Recording observations
a. must decide what is the best format to record note
in
b. must decide what to “weed out”
c. analyze as you go/catagorize
20. THE TITLES OF STUDIES:
• Gang-Related Gun Violence.”
• “The Dignity of Job-Seeking Men.”
• “Telling the Code of the Street.”
• Streets, Sidewalks, Stores, and Stories.
• “The Power of Names.” 7
• “On Thick Description and Narrative Inquiry in Music
Education.” 8
• “Inside High School: The Student’s Perspective.”
21. For example Franz Boas studied the indigenous
people of the north west Pacific coast, Alaska and
Siberia.
Photographs of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition
which Boas was involved in can be found by following
this link:
http://anthro.amnh.org/anthropology/databases/pho
to_jesup.htm
EXAMPLES OF ETHNOGRAPHY
22. • “Ethnographic research is, in many
respects, the most complex of all research
methods…”
(Helen et al. ,2012)
24. WHAT IS
HISTORICAL
RESEARCH?
Focuses on the
past.
Is the systematic
collection and
evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and
thereby understand
action or events that
occurred sometime in
the past
There’s no
manipulation or
control of
variables
25. THE
PURPOSE
OF
HISTORICAL
RESEARCH
To make people aware
of what has happened
in the past so they may
learn from past failures
and successes
To learn how things were
done in the past to see if
they might be applicable to
present-day problems and
concerns.
To assist in prediction. If
a particular idea or
approach has been
tried before, even
under somewhat
different
circumstances, past
results may offer policy
makers some ideas
about how present
plans may turn out.
To test hypotheses
concerning relationships
or trends.
To understand
present
educational
practices and
policies more fully.
26. STEPS IN HR?
Defining the
problem
Locating
relevant
sources
Summarizing
information
obtained from
historical
sources
Evaluating
historical
sources
27. DEFINING THE PROBLEM
• Purpose of a historical study in education is to
describe clearly and accurately some aspect of
the past as it related to education or schooling
• Researchers aim to do more than just
describe, they want to go beyond description to
clarify and explain and sometimes to correct
• In HR problem maybe selected for study for
which insufficient data are available.
• Data of interest, such as diaries or maps from a
particular period cannot be located in historical
research.
28. LOCATING RELEVANT SOURCES
CATEGORIES OF SOURCES
After researchers has decided on the problem or question to be investigate, the search of sources begins.
DOCUMENTS
- Written or printed
documents which
have been produced
in some form or
another (annual
reports, artwork, bills,
books, legal
records, newspapers,
magazines, diaries, co
urt records and etc.)
- Published or
unpublished.
NUMERICAL
RECORDS
- Any type of
numerical data in
printed records
include any type of
numerical data in
printed form: test
scores, attendance
figures, census
report, school
budgets.
ORAL STATEMENTS
- Another valuable
source of
information for the
historical
researcher are the
statements people
make orally.
-
interviews, stories,
myths, tales, legen
ds, chants, songs, a
nd other form of
oral expression.
RELICS
- Any object whose
physical or visual
characteristics can
provide some
information about
the past. Examples
furniture, artwork,
clothing, buildings,
monuments, equip
ment.
29. Examples of Historical Studies
I. “Shakespeare Under Different Flags: The
Bard in German Classrooms from Hitler to
Honecker”
II. “A better Crop of Boys and Girls: The School
Gardening Movement, 1890-1920”
III. “Indian Heart/White Man’s Head: Native-
American Teachers in Indian Schools”
30. EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL SOURCES
• Attendance records from two different school
districts over a 40-year period.
• A taped oral interview with a secretary of
education who served in the administrations
of three different U.S presidents.
• A diary kept by a woman teacher on the Ohio
frontier in the 1800s
• Samples of clothing worn by students in the
early nineteenth century in rural Georgia.
31. Primary VS Secondary Sources
PRIMARY SOURCES
• Prepared by an individual
who was a participant in or
direct witness.
• Example: an eyewitness
account of the opening of a
new school.
SECONDARY SOURCES
• Document prepared by an
individual who was not a
direct witness but obtained
description of the event
from someone else.
• Example: a newspaper
editorial commenting on a
recent teachers’ strike
would be an example.
Whenever possible, historians want to use
primary sources than secondary sources. Why?
32. SUMMARIZING INFORMATION OBTAINED
FROM HISTORICAL SOURCES
• When a researcher rely on secondary data sources, he or she
increases the chance of the data being less detailed/or less
accurate.
• Data one collects under categories related to the problem being
studied; and summarizing pertinent information.
• Categorical data simply indicate the total number of
objects, individuals, or events a researcher finds in a particular
category.
• Example : researcher who reports the number of students
completing a program in successive years, is reporting
categorical data.
• Notice that, researcher are looking for the frequency of certain
characteristics, objects, individuals, or events.
• Example : a study investigating the daily activities that occurred
in nineteenth century elementary schoolrooms. categories :
33. EXAMPLE OF HISTORIANS ENGAGE IN RESEARCH
ASSUMPTION
DIVIDE
WORKS
FILLING
NOTEBOOKS
WITH FACTS
WRITE
FROM
BEGINNING
TO THE END
BEGIN TO
WRITE
AFTER
CAPITAL
SOURCES
MORE
WRITING, BE
TTER
UNDERSTAN
DING THE
RELEVANCE
AND
SIGNIFICANC
E OF WHAT
TO FIND
34. EVALUATING HISTORICAL SOURCES
External Criticism
Refer to genuineness of the
documents researcher
uses.
Wanted to know whether
the documents they find
were really prepared by the
author of the document
Sometimes, falsified
documents can lead to
erroneous conclusions.
Internal Criticism
Once satisfied that
document is genuine, they
need to determine if the
document is accurate.
Both the accuracy of the
information contained in a
document and the
truthfulness of the author
need to be evaluated.
Whereas external criticism
has to do with the nature
or authenticity of the
documents itself with what
documents says.
35. SAMPLE QUESTIONS OF INTERNAL
CRITICISM
• Who wrote this doc?
• For what purpose was the doc written?
• When was the doc written?
• Where was the doc written?
• Under what conditions was the doc written?
• Do different forms or versions of the doc exist?
36. SAMPLE QUESTIONS OF INTERNAL
CRITICISM
1. With regard to the author of the doc?
• Was the author present at the event he or she is describing?
• Was the author a participant in or an observer of the event?
• Was the author competent to describe the event?
• Was the author emotionally involved in the event?
• Did the author have any vested interest in the outcomes of the
event?
2. With regard to the contents of the doc?
• Do the contents make sense?
• Could the event described have occurred at that time?
• Would people have behaved as described?
• Does the language of the document suggest a bias of any sort?
• Do other versions of the event exist?
37. DATA ANAYLSIS IN HR
• Historical researchers must find ways to make
sense out of what is usually a very large amount
of data and then synthesize it into meaningful
narrative of their own.
• Operate sources from theoretical model that
helps them organize the information they have
collected.
• A coding system maybe useful.
• Some historians, used quantitative data to
validate interpretations derived from
documents, such as crime and unemployment
rates.
38. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HR?
ADVANTAGES
• Permits investigation of topics
and questions that can be
studied
• Wider range of evidence than
most other methods
• Provides an alternative and
richer source of information
with other methodologies
DISADVANTAGES
• Measures used in other methods to
control for threats to internal validity
are simply not possible in a HR
• Limitations imposed by the nature of
the sample of documents and the
instrumentations process are likely to
be severe
• Unable to ensure representativeness
of the sample
• Possibility of bias due to researcher
characteristics
• Possibility any observed relationships
are due to a threat involving subject
characteristic.
• Difficult type of research to conduct
• Need skills of linguistics, chemist and
archeologist.
39. Q&A SESSION
1. What would you say is the most difficult aspects
of ethnographic research?
2. Ethnographic studies are rarely replicated. Why
do you supposed this is do?
3. Which of the steps involved in historical research
do you think is the hardest to complete? Why?
4. Do researchers can ensure the representatives of
the sample? Why?
5. Historians usually prefer to use primary rather
than secondary sources. Why?