This document defines ethnographic research and outlines the ethnographic research process. It discusses key characteristics of ethnographic research such as being conducted in a natural context and emphasizing everyday experiences through observation and interviews. The document also describes common ethnographic research techniques like triangulation, participant observation, and taking field notes. It provides examples of historical research studies and outlines the steps involved in historical research, including defining the problem, locating sources, summarizing information, and evaluating sources. Limitations of historical research discussed include relying on limited surviving records and not ensuring a representative sample.

1. PREPARED BY:
NURUL IFFAH
AZLIN
DABNEY
NORDALILAH
ELNIZIANA
AINUL ZAKIRAH
EDU 702
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(DR JOHAN EDDY LUARAN)

3. DEFINITION
GOAL
RESEARCH
PROCESSKEY
CHARACTERISTIC
TYPE OF
ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH
TECHNIQUES

4. DEFINITION
The study of the cultural patterns
and perspectives of participant in
their natural settings.
To understand the situation about
a phenomena

5. GOAL
Describe, analyze
& interpret the
culture of a group
Shared beliefs,
behaviors &
language
Culture  set of
attitudes, values,
concepts, beliefs
& practices shared
What researchers
attempt to
describe in
research?
Cultural
orientation
Cultural know-how
Cultural beliefs

6. 1. PURPOSE OF
THE RESEARCH
2. THE
RELEVANCE
OF THE
PROPOSED
STUDY
3. SITE AND
SAMPLE FOR
THE STUDY
4. ESTABLISH
RAPPORT WITH
COLLABORATORS
5. BEGIN DATA
COLLECTION
6. ANALYZE &
INTERPRET DATA ,
WRITE
ETHNOGRAPHIC
ACCOUNT

7. The most complex of all research
To obtain as holistic a picture as possible
A holistic perspective of:
 A particular group of society
 Institution
 Setting
 Situation

8. Conducted in a natural context.
Emphasis on documenting everyday
experiences of individuals by observing
and interviewing
Involves intimate face-to-face
interactions with participants.
Reflects participants’ perspectives and
behaviours.
Data is collected primarily through
fieldwork experiences.

9. Uses multiple data sourced including
both quantitative and qualitative.
Key tools : indepth interviewing &
continual observation
Within a socio-political and historical
context.
Establishing rapport in a new community
Researcher learn to act naturally (so
people go about their business as usual)

10. Investigates a small number of cases in
detail.
Uses data analysis that involve the
explicit interpretation of the meanings
and functions of human actions
Interpretations of people’s actions and
behaviours that are uncovered through
the investigation of what they actually do
and the reason for doing it.

11. Offers a representation or interpretation
of people’s lives and behaviours.
 Built on the points of understanding that
occur between the researcher and
participants.
Thick description
Non-judgmental orientation (researcher
refrain from making value judgement)
 Eg of Title: Inside High School:The student
perspective/Amalan Pengetua Cemerlang

12. Three major techniques:
1)Triangulation
2)Participant Observation
3)Field notes

13. Collecting data using many
sources rather than a single one.
Multiple sources:
• - Interviews
• - Observations
• - Artifacts
Multiple informants.
Consistency across sources and
informants creates a stronger
understanding of what is truly
going on.

14. The researcher is immersed in the research setting in order to
get close to those studied as a way of understanding what
their experiences and activities mean to them.
• Two purposes:
1) To observe the activities, people and physical aspects of a
situation.
2) To engage in activities that provide useful information in a
given situation.

15. • Make mental notes and record them as soon as
possible after observing.
• Jot down key information.
• Capture key words and phrases without a lot of
explanation.
• Use a mnemonic device to help reconstruct the
observed events.
• Don’t worry about grammar or other rules.
• Trace what you did during the day.
• Avoid the temptation to recreate dialogue

16. • Describe as completely and accurately
as you can all relevant aspects of the
observation.
• Record your personal reactions (i.e.:
reflective field notes)
• Observe and record everything you
possibly can.
• Observe and look for nothing in
particular.

18.  Historical research is the act of researching the
events that have happened in history.There are
many classes available for this type of research.
 The definition of historical research is finding out
what happened in the past. Research is done by
using old newspapers, old census forms, or other
historical documents.This type of research is
done to understand past events.
 it is a process of critical inquiry into past events
in order to produce an accurate description of
those event. - Wiersma (1986)

19. Historical research is conducted to
Uncover the unknown
Answer questions
Identify the relationship that the past has
to the present
Record and evaluate accomplishments of
individuals, agencies, or institutions
Aid in understanding the culture in which
we live

21. STEPS
INVOLVED IN
HISTORICAL
RESARCH
1. Defining the
problem
(including the
formulation of
hypotheses if
appropriate)
2. Locating
relevant sources
of historical
information
3. Summarizing
information
obtained from
historical sources
4. Evaluating
Historical
Sources

22. Examples of historical
studies that have been
published;
• “Shakespeare Under
Different Flags: The Bard
in German Classrooms
from Hitler to Honecker.”
1 • “A Better Crop
of Boys and Girls: The
School Gardening
Movement, 1890–1920.” 2
It is better to study in
depth a well-defined
problem so that the
investigator is off to a
good start
Insufficient data include
(certain kinds of
documents, such as
diaries or maps from a
particular period) simply
cannot be located in
historical research.
Historical research
problems should be
clearly and concisely
stated, be manageable,
have a defensible
rationale, and (if
appropriate) investigate
a hypothesized
relationship among
variables.
1. Defining the problem

23. Historical
source
material
can be
grouped
into four
basic
categories:
Documents : It refers to any kind of information that
exists in some type of written or printed form, such as
annual reports, artwork,newspapers and magazines .
Numerical records : It can be any type of numerical data
in printed form such as test scores, attendance figures
and school budgets.
Oral statements : Oral statement is the statements people
make orally such as stories, myths, tales, legends and
songs.
Relics : Relic is any object whose physical or visual
characteristics can provide some information about the
past. Examples include furniture, clothing, buildings,
monuments, or equipment.

24. It is one prepared by an
individual who was a
participant in or a direct
witness to the event
being described.
Example : Songs
composed by members
of a high school glee
club in the 1930s.
Primary
Source It is a document
prepared by an
individual who was not a
direct witness to an
event but who obtained
his or her description of
the event from someone
else.
Example : A magazine
article summarizing
Aristotle’s views on
education.
Secondary
Source

25. Determining the relevancy
of the particular material
to the question or problem
being investigated
Recording the full
bibliographic data of the
source
Organizing the data one
collects under categories
related to the problem
being studied
Summarizing pertinent
information (important
facts, quotations, and
questions) on note cards
3. Summarizing information obtained from historical sources
Reading and summarizing
historical data is rarely, if ever,
a neat, orderly sequence of steps
to be followed, however.
Often reading and writing are
interspersed

26. It is refer to the
genuineness of any
and all documents the
researcher uses.
Researchers engaged in
historical research want to
know whether or not the
documents they find were
really prepared by the
(supposed) author(s) of the
document.
Several questions come to mind
in evaluating the genuineness of
a historical source example:
a) Who wrote this document?
b) For what purpose was the
document written?
c) When was the document
written?
d) Where was the document
written?
External
Criticism

27. It means that researchers
need to determine if the
contents of the document
are accurate.
Both the accuracy of the
information contained in a
document and the
truthfulness of the author
need to be evaluated.
As with external criticism, several questions
need to be asked in attempting to evaluate the
accuracy of the truthfulness of its author,
example:
a) Was the author present at the event he or
she is describing?
b) Was the author a participant in or an
observer of the event?
c) Was the author emotionally involved in the
event?
d)Was the author competent to describe the
event?
Internal
Criticism
With regard to the contents of the document,
such as :
a) Do the contents make sense?
b) Could the event described have occurred
at that time?
c) Would people have behaved as
described?
d) Does the language of the document
suggest a bias of any sort?

28. GENERALIZATION IN
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

29. • Historical research is that which utilizes
historical sources like documents to
study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and
group.
• As in all research, researchers who
conduct historical studies should
exercise caution in generalizing
from small or non-representative
samples.
GENERALIZATIONINHISTORICALRESEARCH

30. STRENGHTS OF
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

31. • It can illuminate the effects of
key interactions within a culture or
sub-culture.
• Researchers can apply scientific
objectivity in attempting to determine
exactly what did happen in the past.
• Throw light on present and future
trends.
• Can make use of more categories
of evidence than most other methods
(with the exception of case study and
ethnographic studies).
STRENGHTSOFHISTORICALRESEARCH

32. LIMITATIONS OF
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

33. LIMITATIONSOFHISTORICALRESEARCH
• History also depends on valuable
materials which are difficult to
preserve.
• Can only give a fractional view of
the past; its knowledge is never
complete and derived from the
surviving records of a limited number of
past events.
• Researchers cannot ensure
representation of the sample.
• Limited to whatever data are available
and excessively relies on
secondary source of data.

34. Example of historical research

35. • Lydia Ann Stow: Self-Actualization in a Period
of Transition
– Vivian C. Fox , Worcester State College
• This paper is concerned with a crucial period
of self-actualization in the life of Lydia Ann
Stow (1823–1904)

36. Example framing of a research question

37. QUESTIONS
1. What is definition of Relic? Give FOUR example
of Relic.
2. Why is it important to establish rapport with
collaborators or group of society we want to do
our research on?
3. What is referred to as in the technique of
Triangulation?
4. What are the purposes of the researcher being
immersed in the research setting?
5. State ONE disadvantage of historical research.

38. THANK
YOU