Research

1. Chapter 22
Historical Research
istorical research is different from all the other research methodologies we have
discussed in that it focuses exclusively on past occurrences and events. As a result,
historical researchers in some ways operate differently from other educational
researchers. In this chapter, we discuss the nature of historical research, the kinds of
topics that are investigated in such research, and the problems historical researchers face.
H
Lecture Outline
I. What Is Historical Research?
A. Historical research focuses exclusively on the past.
II. Purposes of Historical Research
A. Educational researchers conduct historical studies for a variety of reasons,
but perhaps the most frequently cited is to help people learn from past
failures and successes.
B. When well-designed and carefully executed, historical research may lead
to the confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses.
III.Steps Involved in Historical Research
A. Defining the Problem
B. Locating Relevant Resources
C. Summarizing and Evaluating Information Obtained from Historical Sources
D. Interpreting the Evidence Obtained
E. Evaluating Historical Sources
F. Drawing Conclusions about the Problem or Hypothesis
IV. Historical Sources
A. Most historical source material can be grouped into four basic categories:
documents, numerical records, oral statements, and relics.
B. Documents are written or printed materials that have been produced
sometime in the past.
C. Numerical records include any type of numerical data in printed or
handwritten form.
D. Oral statements include any form of statement spoken by someone.
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
1 of 7

2. E. Relics are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can provide
some information about the past.
F. A primary source is one prepared by an individual who was a participant
in, or a direct witness to, the event that is being described.
G. A secondary source is a document prepared by an individual who was not
a direct witness to an event, but who obtained his or her description of the
event from someone else.
V. Evaluation of Historical Source Material
A. Content analysis is a primary method of data analysis in historical
research.
B. External criticism refers to the genuineness of the documents a researcher
uses in a historical study.
C. Internal criticism refers to the accuracy of the contents of a document.
Whereas external criticism has to do with the authenticity of a document,
internal criticism has to do with what the document says.
VI. Generalization in Historical Research
A. Researchers who conduct historical studies should exercise caution in
generalizing from small or non-representative samples.
VII. Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research
A. The main advantage of historical research is that it permits the
investigation of topics that could be studied in no other way. It is the only
research method that can study evidence from the past.
B. A disadvantage is that controlling for many of the threats to internal
validity is not possible in historical research. Many of the threats to
internal validity discussed in Chapter Nine are likely to exist in historical
studies.
VIII. An Example of Historical Research
Chapter Objectives
Reading this chapter should enable students to:
 Describe briefly what historical research involves;
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
2 of 7

3.  State three purposes of historical research;
 Give some examples of the kinds of questions investigated in historical research;
 Name and describe briefly the major steps involved in historical research;
 Give some examples of historical sources;
 Distinguish between primary and secondary sources;
 Distinguish between external and internal criticism;
 Discuss when generalization in historical research is appropriate;
 Locate examples of published historical studies, and critique some of the strengths
and weaknesses of these studies; and
 Recognize an example of a historical study when they come across one in the
literature.
Points to Stress
• The uniqueness of historical research is that it focuses on past events and occurrences.
• The difference between a primary and a secondary source.
• The distinction between external and internal criticism.
• Limitations on generalizing the results of a historical study.
Teaching Suggestions and Class Activities
 Confer with the class. Hold individual conferences with those students who are
conducting historical research studies to discuss their progress on Problem Sheet #13.
 Use the blackboard to brainstorm. Review the list of historical research questions
on page 546 in the text. Ask students to suggest some additional topics and/or
questions that might be pursued through historical research, and write them on the
chalkboard.
 Review important concepts in the text. Review the examples of primary and
secondary sources on page 548 of the text. Check to ensure that students are clear
about the distinction between these two types of historical sources. Ask students to
give some additional examples of each type of source.
 For review and discussion. Review the distinction between external and internal
criticism given on pages 549-550 of the text. Which form of criticism would students
judge to be more important? Why?
 For discussion. Discuss questions #2 and #3 on pages 563-564 of the text with the
class.
 Assign panelists and fomenters. Discuss the article titled "Lydia Ann Stow: Self-
Actualization in a Period of Transition” on pages 554-560 in the text. Assign two
students to be "panelists" responsible for presenting the main points of the study, and
assign two other students to be "fomenters" responsible for preparing questions that
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
3 of 7

4. provoke or "foment" discussion on the study presented. Ask students to suggest any
additional strengths or weaknesses in the article besides those we identify in our
analysis on pages 560-562.
 At-home exercise. Direct students to “DoHistory” at:
http://www.dohistory.org/home.html. DoHistory is an interactive case study based on
the 200-year-old diary of midwife/healer Martha Ballard. Ask students to identify the
primary resources used for constructing this historical case study. Have them visit
“Martha Ballard’s Diary Online” and try the transcription and decoding activities.
Discuss the following questions: What do these exercises teach you about the
challenges of effectively using primary resources in research? What does this
historical case study offer that typical textbooks do not? What are advantages and
challenges of conducting historical research?
 Use the Internet to review new concepts. If you have an in-class Internet
connection, go to the “Manuscripts Research Tutorial” at
http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/manuscripts/using/introduction.html.
Discuss the tutorial with students, and participate in the example exercise. When
interpreting the sample manuscript, consider the following: What are the steps in
deciphering a document? How can researchers use handwriting styles and language
as clues in determining the age of a document? What should researchers be aware of
when interpreting information in primary sources? Alternatively, assign this activity
as an at-home exercise.
 Comprehensive review of the articles presented in the textbook. Within Chapters
13-21, have a discussion in which you ask students to give their opinions on which of
the articles we have analyzed is the strongest and the weakest and why.
 Prepare a brief in-class exercise. Ask students to identify a research question on a
topic involving recent events on campus, and discuss specific information sources
that would be appropriate to consult for more information.
Answers to “For Discussion” Questions on pages 563-564
(Note to Instructor: Many of these "For Discussion" questions are open ended in nature
and have no right answer. Students should be encouraged to offer as many alternative
answers as they think plausible and to explain the reasons for the answers they give.)
1. A researcher wishes to investigate changes in high school graduation
requirements since 1900. Pose a possible hypothesis the researcher might investigate.
What sources might he or she consult?
Answer: Here is one possibility, although students might suggest others: "High
school graduation requirements were less extensive in 1900 than they are today."
Sources the researcher might consult would include school district records of the
time, newspaper articles published in 1900 or shortly before, and articles on the
period published in historical journals.
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
4 of 7

5. 2. Why might a researcher be cautious or suspicious about each of the following
sources?
(a) A typewriter imprinted with the name "Christopher Columbus."
(b) A letter from Franklin D. Roosevelt endorsing John F. Kennedy for the
presidency of the United States.
(c) A "Letter to the Editor" from an eighth-grade student complaining about the
inadequacy of the school's advanced mathematics program.
(d) A typed report of an interview with a recently fired teacher describing the
teacher's complaints against the school district.
(e) A 1920 high school diploma indicating a student had graduated from the tenth
grade.
(f) A high school teacher's attendance book indicating no absences by any member of
her class during the entire year of 1942.
(g) A photograph of an elementary school classroom in 1800.
Answers: (a) the typewriter was not yet invented; (b) FDR died in 1945; (c) it
would be unlikely to find an advanced math program in many eighth grades; also
most eighth-graders would not have sufficient knowledge (or probably the interest)
to be able to judge the adequacy of such a program; (d) such a teacher would likely
be biased against the district; (e) students graduated from the twelfth, not the tenth,
grade in high schools; (f) it is highly unlikely that there would be no absences for
an entire year; also this was during World War II and it is probable, if it were a
twelfth-grade class, that some students might have left school to join the service;
and (g) cameras were not yet available for picture taking.
3. How would you compare historical research to the other methodologies we have
discussed in this book—harder or easier to do? Why?
Answer: Historical research is the only method for studying the past. Therefore, it
probably cannot be compared to other forms of research.
4. “Researchers cannot ensure representativeness of the sample” in historical
research. Why not?
Answer: In historical research, there is no way to identify the population and
therefore no way to obtain a representative sample. Historical research has a time
and space dimension that must be considered in data collection.
5. Which of the steps involved in historical research that we have described do you
think would be the hardest to complete? The easiest? Why?
Answer: Replies will vary here. Accept any and all student answers, but ask them
to explain their reasons for their choice.
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
5 of 7

6. 6. Can you think of any topic or idea that would not be a potential source for
historical research? Why not? Suggest an example.
Answer: Events in the recent past due to the fact that many documents would not
yet be available, or because passions have not yet cooled enough to enable an
objective look at what has occurred.
7. Historians usually prefer to use primary rather than secondary sources. Why?
Can you think of an instance, however, where the reverse might be true? Discuss.
Answer: Because they are first-hand accounts and more likely to give a “true"
account of what happened. The reverse might be the case when a primary source is
widely believed to have an axe of some type to grind, and hence, unlikely to give an
honest account of what actually happened.
8. Which do you think is harder to establish—the genuineness or the accuracy of a
historical document? Why?
Answer: There are no right answers here. Both are often difficult to establish. If
we had to choose, we would probably come down on the side of accuracy.
Encourage students to explain their reasoning, whichever they choose.
Resources and References
⇒ Chapter-Specific Web sites:
3. The Historical Approach to Research
http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/historical.htm
4. Manuscripts Research Tutorial
http://www.lib.unc.edu/instruct/manuscripts/using/introduction.html
5. Using Primary Sources on the Web
http://www.lib.washington.edu/subject/History/RUSA/
6. Historical Research on the Internet
http://www.cortland.edu/history/research.html
7. Library of Congress
http://www.loc.gov/
⇒ General Web sites:
• National Center for Education Statistics: Dropout Rates
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000022
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
6 of 7

7. • National Center for Education Statistics: Electronic Catalog
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/
• Arts and Humanities Data Service (AHDS)
http://ahds.ac.uk/
⇒ Journal Articles and Related Texts:
Barzun, J., and H. F. Graff. 2002. The modern researcher (6th ed.). San Diego: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Brundage, A. 2002. Going to the sources: A guide to historical research and writing (3rd
ed.). Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson.
Carr, E. H. 1967. What is history? New York: Random House.
Harvey, C., and J. Press. 1996. Databases in historical research: Theory, methods, and
applications. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Tuchman, B. W. 1981. Practicing history. New York: Knopf.
Fraenkel 6e, Instructor's Manual, Ch. 22
7 of 7