Basic concepts of Engineering geology from various books and internet images, which will be helpfull to many civil, petroleum and mining engineering students at basic level.
This document provides notes on engineering geology for students studying civil and building engineering. It introduces the course objectives, which are to describe rock types and structures, understand how geology relates to engineering projects, and consider geological factors in design and construction. The document defines key terms like geology, the work of geologists, and the scope of geology. It explains that engineering geology applies geological principles to civil engineering challenges. The notes aim to equip students to incorporate geological knowledge into infrastructure development.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Earthquacke Elastic Rebound Theory Types of WavesShakeel Ahmad
1) The document discusses the causes and types of earthquakes. It explains that earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built-up energy between tectonic plates, which generates seismic waves.
2) It describes the elastic rebound theory of earthquakes, which states that stress gradually builds up along faults until it is suddenly released, causing the plates to snap back in an earthquake.
3) There are different types of seismic waves generated - P waves, S waves, and surface waves including Rayleigh and Love waves. P and S waves travel through the earth's interior as body waves, while surface waves travel along the surface.
This document provides an overview of mineralogy, which is the study of minerals. It defines minerals as naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. Rocks are made up of aggregates of minerals, and the properties of rocks are determined by the minerals they contain. Minerals form through crystallization from magma or lava or by precipitation from solution. Minerals are identified based on physical properties like color, streak, hardness, luster, cleavage, fracture, and crystal form, which are determined by their internal atomic structure. Common minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, calcite, pyroxenes, olivine, amphiboles, and iron oxides.
This document summarizes how rocks are classified based on their formation. There are three main classes of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Within each class, rocks can be further classified based on their composition, texture, and grain size. Igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, and can be intrusive or extrusive based on where they solidify underground or above ground, affecting their grain size. Sedimentary rocks form from cemented sediments like grains, shells, and fossils. Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated textures indicating the process that altered the original rock.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks through heat and pressure within the Earth. This process, called metamorphism, changes the hardness, texture, and layering of the original rocks. There are different types of metamorphism that result in various metamorphic rock formations. Metamorphic rocks exhibit features like foliation, lineation, and different textures depending on the grade of metamorphism experienced. Common metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble.
The document discusses the mica group of minerals, including their structure, occurrence, properties, uses, and members. The main members are phlogopite, annite, biotite, and muscovite. Micas have a monoclinic crystal structure and basal cleavage. They commonly occur in metamorphic rocks and India is a major producer. Micas are used for their dielectric, elastic, light weight, and heat conducting properties and stability at high temperatures.
This document provides notes on engineering geology for students studying civil and building engineering. It introduces the course objectives, which are to describe rock types and structures, understand how geology relates to engineering projects, and consider geological factors in design and construction. The document defines key terms like geology, the work of geologists, and the scope of geology. It explains that engineering geology applies geological principles to civil engineering challenges. The notes aim to equip students to incorporate geological knowledge into infrastructure development.
This document discusses the physical properties of rocks. It defines a rock as an aggregate of mineral particles that can be sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous. Physical properties describe the performance of rocks under different conditions and help classify rocks. These properties include specific gravity, density, porosity, permeability, and electrical/thermal conductivity. Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture also influence the physical properties of a rock. The document provides examples of common rock-forming minerals and explains how properties like density and specific gravity are measured and used to characterize rocks.
Earthquacke Elastic Rebound Theory Types of WavesShakeel Ahmad
1) The document discusses the causes and types of earthquakes. It explains that earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built-up energy between tectonic plates, which generates seismic waves.
2) It describes the elastic rebound theory of earthquakes, which states that stress gradually builds up along faults until it is suddenly released, causing the plates to snap back in an earthquake.
3) There are different types of seismic waves generated - P waves, S waves, and surface waves including Rayleigh and Love waves. P and S waves travel through the earth's interior as body waves, while surface waves travel along the surface.
This document provides an overview of mineralogy, which is the study of minerals. It defines minerals as naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a defined chemical composition and crystalline structure. Rocks are made up of aggregates of minerals, and the properties of rocks are determined by the minerals they contain. Minerals form through crystallization from magma or lava or by precipitation from solution. Minerals are identified based on physical properties like color, streak, hardness, luster, cleavage, fracture, and crystal form, which are determined by their internal atomic structure. Common minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, calcite, pyroxenes, olivine, amphiboles, and iron oxides.
This document summarizes how rocks are classified based on their formation. There are three main classes of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Within each class, rocks can be further classified based on their composition, texture, and grain size. Igneous rocks form from cooled lava or magma, and can be intrusive or extrusive based on where they solidify underground or above ground, affecting their grain size. Sedimentary rocks form from cemented sediments like grains, shells, and fossils. Metamorphic rocks have foliated or non-foliated textures indicating the process that altered the original rock.
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks through heat and pressure within the Earth. This process, called metamorphism, changes the hardness, texture, and layering of the original rocks. There are different types of metamorphism that result in various metamorphic rock formations. Metamorphic rocks exhibit features like foliation, lineation, and different textures depending on the grade of metamorphism experienced. Common metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble.
The document discusses the mica group of minerals, including their structure, occurrence, properties, uses, and members. The main members are phlogopite, annite, biotite, and muscovite. Micas have a monoclinic crystal structure and basal cleavage. They commonly occur in metamorphic rocks and India is a major producer. Micas are used for their dielectric, elastic, light weight, and heat conducting properties and stability at high temperatures.
This document discusses various mechanisms that can cause variation in igneous rocks, including magmatic differentiation, assimilation, and magma mixing. It defines primary and parental magmas and explains that over 700 types of igneous rocks exist despite only a few primary magma types. The key mechanisms of magmatic differentiation discussed are fractional crystallization, liquid immiscibility, vapor transport, and thermal diffusion. Assimilation and magma mixing are also explained as additional processes that can change a magma's composition and result in diverse rock types. Specific examples like carbonatites and unusual rock compositions provide evidence of these differentiation and mixing processes.
This document discusses various topics relating to glacial hydrology:
- Meltwater plays a key role in glacial erosion, transportation, and deposition of material. It is involved in processes like plucking, abrasion, basal sliding, and subglacial bed formation.
- Meltwater is derived from surface melting and basal melting. It transports sediment within the glacier and in streams that emerge from the glacier.
- Glacial deposits include till, drumlins, moraines, eskers, and outwash plains formed from fluvio-glacial sediments. Landforms provide clues about glacial transport processes and ice flow direction.
- Kames, kame terraces
liquefaction, its causes,mechanism and liquefaction potential mappings. Liquefaction analysis and measure of mitigation . along with susceptibility map of Kathmandu valley, Nepal and conclusion.
Ground support is necessary when voids (empty spaces) are created underground. Some means of support is required
in order to maintain the stability of the openings that are excavated.
The competeny of the rock being mined will determine how large a void may be created and what ground support
methods will be necessary to maintain a safe working environment.
This document provides information about mineralogy, including the definition of a mineral, modes of mineral formation, crystallography, physical properties of minerals, and important rock-forming mineral groups. It discusses how minerals form from magma, secondary processes, and metamorphism. It also summarizes symmetry in crystals, Mohs hardness scale, cleavage, fracture, isomorphism, and silicate mineral structures. Major rock-forming silicates like feldspars, pyroxenes, and amphiboles are described in terms of their crystal systems, chemical compositions, and physical characteristics.
This document summarizes a seminar on soil-structure interaction (SSI) and its effects on deep foundations. SSI considers how the presence of a structure influences soil response and vice versa. Key concepts include kinematic interaction due to foundation stiffness and embedment, and inertial interaction from structural forces imparted to soil. SSI is analyzed using direct or substructure methods and can lengthen periods, increase damping, and impact displacements depending on structure and soil stiffness. Deep foundations are discussed, including behavior of single piles under vertical and lateral loads.
Introduction and classification of rocksTarun kumar
Introduction and classification of rocks for building and construction materials... types of rocks and their classifications, and types of stone quarrying.
Sedimentary rocks form through the deposition of sediments or fragments by processes like erosion, transportation, and deposition. Sedimentary structures are classified based on how the sediments were deposited and include stratification, graded bedding, cross-bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, rain drop marks, casts and molds, tool marks, tracks and trails, and burrow marks. Sedimentary rocks also include chemical rocks like limestone and dolomite formed from mineral precipitation, and biochemical rocks like coal and fossil-bearing limestone formed from organic materials.
This document contains 55 questions related to geodynamics and plate tectonics. The questions cover a wide range of topics including the planetary evolution of Earth, continental drift evidence, plate boundary types, ocean floor spreading, seafloor features such as mid-ocean ridges and trenches, mountain building processes like collisional orogeny, and structural features of plate boundaries, continental rifts and volcanic island arcs. Several questions also focus on specific case studies like the Himalayas, Narmada rift valley, and ophiolites of the Indian subcontinent.
Walther's Law of Facies states that the vertical succession of rock layers reflects lateral changes in depositional environment over time. As environments migrate across the landscape, the sediments deposited in different environments become stacked on top of each other according to their distribution. This law is widely used in sedimentary geology to interpret depositional settings from vertical rock sequences and construct paleogeographic maps. However, it only applies where rock layers are conformable without gaps in deposition. An example of Walther's Law is how a vertical succession of limestone over shale over sandstone can indicate a transgressive sequence as a shallow sea advanced over the landscape.
Geodynamics studies mantle convection and plate tectonics to understand phenomena like seafloor spreading and mountain building. It provides fundamentals for how the solid Earth works as a heat engine. Early theorists like Wegener and Du Toit proposed continental drift to explain geological similarities between continents. In the 1960s, seafloor mapping and studies of magnetic pole positions in rocks supported plate tectonics, where convection in the mantle drives the motion of rigid tectonic plates. This theory was accepted when it provided a unifying framework and mechanism to explain observations of geology and geophysics.
Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: clastic sedimentary rocks which form from fragments of other rocks; chemical sedimentary rocks which form from precipitation of minerals from solution; and organic sedimentary rocks which form from remains of plants and animals. Sedimentary rocks preserve features that reflect the environment of deposition such as layering, fossils, ripple marks, and mud cracks.
This document discusses metamorphic textures, which refer to the physical appearance or arrangement of minerals in metamorphic rocks at the microscopic level. There are several types of textures that can form during metamorphism due to factors like heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. Typomorphic textures are characteristic of metamorphism and include porphyroblastic, mortar, and granoblastic textures. Relict textures are inherited from the original rock, such as ophitic or porphyritic textures. Reaction textures involve chemical reactions between minerals, forming textures like coronas or reaction rims. The document provides examples of different textures and concludes that textures provide information about the metamorphic conditions and original rock type.
This document provides an overview of soil liquefaction. It defines liquefaction as when saturated, cohesionless soils lose strength and stiffness during dynamic loading such as earthquakes, causing the soil to behave like a liquid. Liquefaction occurs in loose, saturated sands and silts below the water table. When liquefaction initiates, pore water pressure increases until grains can float freely in water, losing strength. This can damage structures and cause ground failures. The document discusses factors influencing liquefaction, consequences, and related phenomena like quicksand and quick clay.
The document defines key vocabulary related to earthquakes, including focus, epicenter, seismic waves (P waves, S waves, surface waves), and discusses what causes earthquakes. It then explains how energy from earthquakes is transferred by P waves and S waves. P waves are longitudinal waves that travel faster and arrive first, compressing and stretching the Earth's crust. S waves are transverse waves that move more slowly and cause side-to-side shaking motions. Finally, it briefly describes the three main types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes which erupt frequently with gentle slopes, composite volcanoes with steeper sides made of layers of ash and lava, and cinder cones which are small and explosive.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Soil liquefaction occurs when loose, saturated sediments lose strength and behave like a liquid rather than a solid due to increased pore water pressure during periods of intensive ground shaking, such as during earthquakes. Liquefaction can cause major damage to buildings and structures. It is most common in loose, saturated, poorly drained soils like sands and gravels. The document discusses the causes and effects of liquefaction and methods for identifying liquefaction susceptibility and mitigating the risks.
STUDY OF IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS.pdfRITISHASINGH7
Study of important metamorphic rocks-
Petrological Characteristics, Indian Stratigraphic Position, Locality, Economic Importance and Facts about -
Granulite, Charnockite,
Eclogite, migmatites, Khondalite, Gondites.
This document provides information on identifying common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties. It begins with an introduction to the learning competency and objectives. It then discusses the key physical properties used to identify minerals, including luster, hardness, crystal form, color, streak, cleavage, specific gravity, and other properties. It also covers the main chemical properties and groups of minerals, such as silicates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, carbonates, native elements, and halides. The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate mineral properties and identification techniques.
This document discusses various mechanisms that can cause variation in igneous rocks, including magmatic differentiation, assimilation, and magma mixing. It defines primary and parental magmas and explains that over 700 types of igneous rocks exist despite only a few primary magma types. The key mechanisms of magmatic differentiation discussed are fractional crystallization, liquid immiscibility, vapor transport, and thermal diffusion. Assimilation and magma mixing are also explained as additional processes that can change a magma's composition and result in diverse rock types. Specific examples like carbonatites and unusual rock compositions provide evidence of these differentiation and mixing processes.
This document discusses various topics relating to glacial hydrology:
- Meltwater plays a key role in glacial erosion, transportation, and deposition of material. It is involved in processes like plucking, abrasion, basal sliding, and subglacial bed formation.
- Meltwater is derived from surface melting and basal melting. It transports sediment within the glacier and in streams that emerge from the glacier.
- Glacial deposits include till, drumlins, moraines, eskers, and outwash plains formed from fluvio-glacial sediments. Landforms provide clues about glacial transport processes and ice flow direction.
- Kames, kame terraces
liquefaction, its causes,mechanism and liquefaction potential mappings. Liquefaction analysis and measure of mitigation . along with susceptibility map of Kathmandu valley, Nepal and conclusion.
Ground support is necessary when voids (empty spaces) are created underground. Some means of support is required
in order to maintain the stability of the openings that are excavated.
The competeny of the rock being mined will determine how large a void may be created and what ground support
methods will be necessary to maintain a safe working environment.
This document provides information about mineralogy, including the definition of a mineral, modes of mineral formation, crystallography, physical properties of minerals, and important rock-forming mineral groups. It discusses how minerals form from magma, secondary processes, and metamorphism. It also summarizes symmetry in crystals, Mohs hardness scale, cleavage, fracture, isomorphism, and silicate mineral structures. Major rock-forming silicates like feldspars, pyroxenes, and amphiboles are described in terms of their crystal systems, chemical compositions, and physical characteristics.
This document summarizes a seminar on soil-structure interaction (SSI) and its effects on deep foundations. SSI considers how the presence of a structure influences soil response and vice versa. Key concepts include kinematic interaction due to foundation stiffness and embedment, and inertial interaction from structural forces imparted to soil. SSI is analyzed using direct or substructure methods and can lengthen periods, increase damping, and impact displacements depending on structure and soil stiffness. Deep foundations are discussed, including behavior of single piles under vertical and lateral loads.
Introduction and classification of rocksTarun kumar
Introduction and classification of rocks for building and construction materials... types of rocks and their classifications, and types of stone quarrying.
Sedimentary rocks form through the deposition of sediments or fragments by processes like erosion, transportation, and deposition. Sedimentary structures are classified based on how the sediments were deposited and include stratification, graded bedding, cross-bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, rain drop marks, casts and molds, tool marks, tracks and trails, and burrow marks. Sedimentary rocks also include chemical rocks like limestone and dolomite formed from mineral precipitation, and biochemical rocks like coal and fossil-bearing limestone formed from organic materials.
This document contains 55 questions related to geodynamics and plate tectonics. The questions cover a wide range of topics including the planetary evolution of Earth, continental drift evidence, plate boundary types, ocean floor spreading, seafloor features such as mid-ocean ridges and trenches, mountain building processes like collisional orogeny, and structural features of plate boundaries, continental rifts and volcanic island arcs. Several questions also focus on specific case studies like the Himalayas, Narmada rift valley, and ophiolites of the Indian subcontinent.
Walther's Law of Facies states that the vertical succession of rock layers reflects lateral changes in depositional environment over time. As environments migrate across the landscape, the sediments deposited in different environments become stacked on top of each other according to their distribution. This law is widely used in sedimentary geology to interpret depositional settings from vertical rock sequences and construct paleogeographic maps. However, it only applies where rock layers are conformable without gaps in deposition. An example of Walther's Law is how a vertical succession of limestone over shale over sandstone can indicate a transgressive sequence as a shallow sea advanced over the landscape.
Geodynamics studies mantle convection and plate tectonics to understand phenomena like seafloor spreading and mountain building. It provides fundamentals for how the solid Earth works as a heat engine. Early theorists like Wegener and Du Toit proposed continental drift to explain geological similarities between continents. In the 1960s, seafloor mapping and studies of magnetic pole positions in rocks supported plate tectonics, where convection in the mantle drives the motion of rigid tectonic plates. This theory was accepted when it provided a unifying framework and mechanism to explain observations of geology and geophysics.
Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments. There are three main types: clastic sedimentary rocks which form from fragments of other rocks; chemical sedimentary rocks which form from precipitation of minerals from solution; and organic sedimentary rocks which form from remains of plants and animals. Sedimentary rocks preserve features that reflect the environment of deposition such as layering, fossils, ripple marks, and mud cracks.
This document discusses metamorphic textures, which refer to the physical appearance or arrangement of minerals in metamorphic rocks at the microscopic level. There are several types of textures that can form during metamorphism due to factors like heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids. Typomorphic textures are characteristic of metamorphism and include porphyroblastic, mortar, and granoblastic textures. Relict textures are inherited from the original rock, such as ophitic or porphyritic textures. Reaction textures involve chemical reactions between minerals, forming textures like coronas or reaction rims. The document provides examples of different textures and concludes that textures provide information about the metamorphic conditions and original rock type.
This document provides an overview of soil liquefaction. It defines liquefaction as when saturated, cohesionless soils lose strength and stiffness during dynamic loading such as earthquakes, causing the soil to behave like a liquid. Liquefaction occurs in loose, saturated sands and silts below the water table. When liquefaction initiates, pore water pressure increases until grains can float freely in water, losing strength. This can damage structures and cause ground failures. The document discusses factors influencing liquefaction, consequences, and related phenomena like quicksand and quick clay.
The document defines key vocabulary related to earthquakes, including focus, epicenter, seismic waves (P waves, S waves, surface waves), and discusses what causes earthquakes. It then explains how energy from earthquakes is transferred by P waves and S waves. P waves are longitudinal waves that travel faster and arrive first, compressing and stretching the Earth's crust. S waves are transverse waves that move more slowly and cause side-to-side shaking motions. Finally, it briefly describes the three main types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes which erupt frequently with gentle slopes, composite volcanoes with steeper sides made of layers of ash and lava, and cinder cones which are small and explosive.
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Soil liquefaction occurs when loose, saturated sediments lose strength and behave like a liquid rather than a solid due to increased pore water pressure during periods of intensive ground shaking, such as during earthquakes. Liquefaction can cause major damage to buildings and structures. It is most common in loose, saturated, poorly drained soils like sands and gravels. The document discusses the causes and effects of liquefaction and methods for identifying liquefaction susceptibility and mitigating the risks.
STUDY OF IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS.pdfRITISHASINGH7
Study of important metamorphic rocks-
Petrological Characteristics, Indian Stratigraphic Position, Locality, Economic Importance and Facts about -
Granulite, Charnockite,
Eclogite, migmatites, Khondalite, Gondites.
This document provides information on identifying common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties. It begins with an introduction to the learning competency and objectives. It then discusses the key physical properties used to identify minerals, including luster, hardness, crystal form, color, streak, cleavage, specific gravity, and other properties. It also covers the main chemical properties and groups of minerals, such as silicates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, carbonates, native elements, and halides. The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate mineral properties and identification techniques.
The document discusses various topics related to earth science and geology. It begins by defining earth science and life science. It then provides information on the age of the universe, theories of earth's formation, and different geologic processes. The last sections discuss the continental drift theory and plate tectonics, explaining how continents move and interact at plate boundaries through convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. Overall, the document provides a broad overview of concepts in earth science, geology, and theories of earth's development and changing landscape over time.
minerals and rocks in geological engineering course chapter two partsAyeleAdinew
The document provides an overview of engineering geology and focuses on minerals and rocks. It discusses the classification of minerals based on their chemical composition and physical properties. The key rock-forming minerals are silicates, which make up 95% of the earth's crust. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, formed from cooling magma; sedimentary, formed from lithification of sediments; and metamorphic, formed from changes to existing rocks by heat and pressure. Igneous rocks are either intrusive, formed underground, or extrusive, formed at the surface from lava. Sedimentary rocks result from consolidation of sediments and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
The document discusses various topics related to earth science including minerals, rocks, and rock formation processes. It defines minerals as naturally occurring inorganic solids and describes their key physical properties like crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, and chemical streak. It also explains how minerals are classified based on their chemical composition, mentioning important classes like silicates, carbonates, and oxides. The document then defines rocks as natural aggregates of minerals and classifies them as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. It briefly introduces the rock cycle and differences between exogenous and endogenous geological processes. Several activities are provided to classify minerals and rocks based on their given properties.
The document discusses the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It provides details on the formation of each rock type. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat and pressure. It also describes the rock cycle, where one rock type can transform into another through geological processes over long periods of time.
This document provides information about a student project on the study of rock types completed by six students. It includes an introduction to the project, methodology used, and evaluation sheets with details of the students involved and their roles. The project aimed to increase knowledge of rock types and was conducted over a period of weeks involving research, report writing, and presentation.
The document discusses the study of minerals and their physical properties. It defines a mineral as a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic structure. The study of minerals, called mineralogy, examines their chemistry, structure, properties and formation. Key physical properties discussed include luster, color, streak, hardness, crystal form, cleavage and density. These properties provide clues to a mineral's composition and atomic structure. The document also differentiates between silicate and non-silicate minerals.
Basic concepts of Engineering geology from various books and internet images, which will be helpfull to many civil, petroleum and mining engineering students at basic level.
Mining Matters Core Concepts are standalone classroom ready activities that reflect key foundational ideas in Earth science. Sourced from our archives of curriculum-linked teacher resources, each activity reflects an integral part of many important concepts and theories in the various disciplines that comprise the Geosciences.
In an effort to be of service to all of our teacher-partners, these activities have been assembled as a way to support individual teachers without the need to attend a pre-requisite teacher training workshop. All the contents of the Core Concepts resource support current teaching practices that values hands-on experience where students take an active role in learning. Any rocks and minerals samples as well as print resources required for successful classroom delivery can be sourced through Mining Matters.
Geologists visited the Malekhu area to study geology. Over two days, they identified and studied various rock types including marble, granite, schist and quartzite. They also examined geological structures such as joints, folds, faults and thrusts. The geologists used compasses to measure the orientation of planar geological features. The field visit provided knowledge about rocks, structures, and field techniques that will help the geologists in their work.
Basic concepts of Engineering geology from various books and internet images, which will be helpfull to many civil, petroleum and mining engineering students at basic level.
The document is a presentation on mineral processing technology. It discusses how metals are found naturally, the main components of mineral processing which include crushing, grinding, sizing, classification, concentration and dewatering. It also discusses the advantages, such as making mineral resources profitable and increasing mining production. However, it notes disadvantages such as destruction of land from subsidence and impact on the biological environment. In conclusion, it emphasizes the importance of ore microscopy in mineral technology to allow for the economic extraction of metals from lower grade ores through efficient beneficiation.
The document discusses the physical properties of minerals that are used to identify them. It defines a mineral and describes the key characteristics used in identification, including chemical composition, atomic structure, and physical properties like color, streak, luster, hardness, crystal structure, and cleavage. Several methods for studying minerals are outlined, such as examining physical properties, chemical composition, optical analysis, and X-ray diffraction. The importance of understanding rock-forming minerals for civil engineering applications is also mentioned. Minerals have unique combinations of physical properties that can be measured and compared to identify the mineral.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on rocks, soils, and minerals given by Engr Muhammad Khubaib of the Department of Civil Engineering at City University of Science and IT Peshawar. The 3-hour lecture covered the identification of minerals based on their physical properties, common rock-forming minerals, and the role of the Geological Survey of Pakistan. Key points included defining minerals based on their crystalline structure and chemical composition, methods to identify minerals using properties like color, streak, hardness, and reaction to acid, and important rock-forming minerals like quartz, feldspar, and calcite.
The document discusses the properties of rocks and minerals. It defines a mineral as having a definite chemical composition and naturally occurring inorganic formation. It notes that the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust are silicon and oxygen, which combine to form silicate compounds. Minerals can be identified based on properties like crystal structure, color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, and fracture.
This document provides an overview of mineralogy, including definitions and classifications of minerals. It discusses that minerals are naturally occurring solid substances with definite chemical compositions and atomic structures formed through inorganic processes. Minerals are divided into rock-forming and ore-forming groups. Rock-forming minerals include primary minerals crystallized from magma/lava and secondary minerals formed through primary mineral alteration. Physical properties of minerals like color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and form/structure are also outlined. Different mineral groups to be studied in practical sessions are listed. Examples of specific rock-forming and ore minerals are given throughout.
The document discusses different types of rocks and minerals. It begins by explaining that Earth is composed of rocks and minerals. Geologists study rocks to understand features of the past environment like volcanoes, mountains, climate. Rocks are naturally occurring combinations of minerals. There are three main types of rocks: igneous formed from cooling magma, sedimentary formed from compressed sediments, and metamorphic formed from changes to existing rocks by heat and pressure. The document then describes various minerals, their properties like hardness, luster, cleavage, and provides examples to illustrate different rock and mineral types. It concludes with an explanation of the rock cycle and mineral properties like specific gravity.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Use PyCharm for remote debugging of WSL on a Windo cf5c162d672e4e58b4dde5d797...shadow0702a
This document serves as a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how to effectively use PyCharm for remote debugging of the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a local Windows machine. It meticulously outlines several critical steps in the process, starting with the crucial task of enabling permissions, followed by the installation and configuration of WSL.
The guide then proceeds to explain how to set up the SSH service within the WSL environment, an integral part of the process. Alongside this, it also provides detailed instructions on how to modify the inbound rules of the Windows firewall to facilitate the process, ensuring that there are no connectivity issues that could potentially hinder the debugging process.
The document further emphasizes on the importance of checking the connection between the Windows and WSL environments, providing instructions on how to ensure that the connection is optimal and ready for remote debugging.
It also offers an in-depth guide on how to configure the WSL interpreter and files within the PyCharm environment. This is essential for ensuring that the debugging process is set up correctly and that the program can be run effectively within the WSL terminal.
Additionally, the document provides guidance on how to set up breakpoints for debugging, a fundamental aspect of the debugging process which allows the developer to stop the execution of their code at certain points and inspect their program at those stages.
Finally, the document concludes by providing a link to a reference blog. This blog offers additional information and guidance on configuring the remote Python interpreter in PyCharm, providing the reader with a well-rounded understanding of the process.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
2. ADITYA
Unit-2 Outcomes
At the end of the Course, Student will be able to:
CO 1 : Illustrate the Physical properties of minerals.
CO 2 : Illustrate the Physical properties of rocks.
CO 3 : Understand the importance of origin of rocks
and theirs megascopic identification.
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Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
3. ADITYA
Contents
• Mineralogy
• Definitions of mineral and rock,
• Different methods of study of minerals and rocks.
• The Megascopic identification of physical properties of
minerals and rocks.
• Common rock forming minerals are Feldspar, Quartz
Group, Olivine, Augite, Hornblende, Mica Group,
Asbestos, Talc, Chlorite, Kyanite, Garnet, Calcite and other
ore forming minerals are Pyrite, Hematite, Magnetite,
Chlorite, Galena, Pyrolusite, Graphite, Chromite, Magnetite
And Bauxite.
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Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
4. ADITYA
Contents
• Petrology
• Classification, structures, textures and forms of Igneous
rocks, Sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks.
• The megascopic study of granite varieties, (pink, grey, green
Etc.,). Pegmatite, Dolerite, Basalt etc., Shale, Sand Stone,
Lime Stone, Laterite, Quartzite, Gneiss, Schist, Marble,
Khondalite and Slate.
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5. ADITYA
5
Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
Module 1 : Mineralogy and physical properties of
minerals
Module 1 : Mineralogy and physical properties of
minerals
7. ADITYA
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, Student will be able to:
LO 1 : Understand the occurrence of minerals and
various types of minerals.
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8. ADITYA
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Mineralogy
It deals with origin, formation,
occurrences, distribution,
types, physical appearances
and chemical compositions of
minerals all over the earth.
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What is a Mineral?
A minerals is a naturally
occurring, homogeneous solid
with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered
atomic structure, inorganic and
mainly it is crystalline.
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• A Mineral that does not have any crystallinity is referred to be
Mineraloid. Examples like crude oil, graphite, coal- these minerals raise
the economy of the nation hence they are considered to be minerals.
• Crystal is defined as natural solid body bounded by smooth surface,
arranged in an orderly ( geometric ) pattern which is an outward
expression of regular and internal atomic structure.
• Faces of a crystals are bounded by flat surfaces.
• Edge is a line of intersection formed by any two adjacent faces.
• Solid angle is a point of intersection of three or more adjacent faces.
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Megascopic identification of physical properties of minerals.
Field identification physical properties of a specimen of a mineral are:-
1. Crystal system
2. From
3. Colour
4. Streak
5. Lustre
6. Fracture
7. Cleavage
8. Hardness
9. Specific gravity
10. Degree of transparency
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Crystal System:-
each of seven
categories of
crystals (cubic,
tetragonal,
orthorhombic,
trigonal,
hexagonal,
monoclinic, and
triclinic) classified
according to the
possible relations
of the crystal axes.
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Forms of minerals :- represents common mode of occurrence of a
mineral in nature. It is also called as habit or structure of a mineral.
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Colour of a mineral
Here a single mineral quartz occurs in variety of colours
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Colour of a mineral is also classified as:-
1. Idio-chromatic – Uniformly occurring colour through out the
body of the mineral.
2. Allo – chromatic – Non uniformly occurring colour of the
mineral which is pale to dark of same colour or one or more
colours in a single mineral.
3. Pseudo-chromatic – False colour representation of a mineral
through out it surface.
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Streak:- The colour of mineral powder is called streak. It is tested on
streak plate which is made of ceramic material and has a in glazed surface
with hardness ranging from 6.5 to 7.3 based on manufacturing processes.
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Lustre or luster is the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock,
or mineral.
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P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
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Fracture, in mineralogy, appearance of a surface broken in directions other
than along cleavage planes.
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Cleavage,
in mineralogy, is the tendency of
crystalline materials to split along
definite crystallographic structural
planes.
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Hardness (H) is the
resistance of a
mineral to
scratching. It is a
property by which
minerals may be
described relative
to a standard scale
of 10 minerals
known as the Mohs
scale of hardness
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A mineral's specific gravity is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal
volume of water.
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Degree of transparency
The amount of light able to be passed through a mineral determines its
transparency. Light is able to pass through transparent minerals; translucent
minerals partially let light pass through; and opaque minerals do not let any
light through.
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Other properties of the minerals that can be recognized or found in a geology lab are by using
chemicals, microscope, x rays, geo-resisters etc.,. are
1. Chemical composition - felsic minerals and mafic minerals.
2. Tenacity – is how well a mineral resists breakage is known as tenacity. Tenacity is described
using these terms:
• Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular fragments (quartz).
• Malleable - Mineral can be modified in shape without breaking and can be flattened to a
thin sheet (copper, gold).
• Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin shavings (talc).
• Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't regain its shape once released (selenite, gypsum).
• Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its original shape when released (muscovite and biotite
mica).
3. Formations:- Refers to which environment condition the minerals were formed.
4. Occurrences :- Refers to minerals occurring variety of rocks in various quantities, such as small
occurrences are called veins and larges occurrences are called lodes in igneous and
metamorphic rocks & in sedimentary rocks as beds called strata, also as placer deposits in
alluvial fans or river brought alluvium.
5. Distribution.
6. Diagnostic properties.
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Silicates (si) are one of the
important classes of minerals
by the chemical composition
and class formed with
bonding of oxygen (o4) as
tetrahedrons which is the
fundamental unit of silicates.
Most of the rock forming
minerals are classified with
reference to their occurrence
in rocks are :
1. Silicates
2. Oxides
3. Carbonates
29. ADITYA
Summary
After completion of module 1 the student is now able to
understand minerals and their identification.
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Engineering Geology
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Module 2 : Petrology, rock cycle and structure &
textures of igneous rocks.
Module 2 : Petrology, rock cycle and structure &
textures of igneous rocks.
32. ADITYA
Introduction to Petrology, rock cycle and
structure & textures of igneous rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar
Sr. Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
33. ADITYA
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, Student will be able to:
LO 1 : Understand the origin of rocks and structures
& textures of igneous rocks.
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Petrology Introduction
Some Definitions
Petra Greek for “rock”
Logos Greek for “disclosure or explanation”
Petrology The branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence,
distribution, structures, history of rocks and identifying the textural
and mineral compositions of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.
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1. Igneous rocks: rocks that solidifies from molten or partially molten
material (i.e. magma).
2. Sedimentary rocks: rocks that results from consolidation of loose
sediment or chemicals precipitating from solution at or near the
earth’s surface; or organic rock consisting of the secretions or remains
of plants and animals.
3. Metamorphic rocks: rocks derived from preexisting rocks by
mineralogical, chemical or structural changes (especially in the solid-
state).
There are three types of rocks
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structures & textures of igneous rocks.
• An igneous rock is any crystalline or glassy rock that forms from cooling
of a magma. Ignum = fire.
• A magma consists mostly of liquid rock matter, but may contain crystals
of various minerals, and may contain a gas phase that may be dissolved
in the liquid or may be present as a separate gas phase.
• Magma can cool to form an igneous rock either on the surface of the
Earth in which case it produces a volcanic or extrusive igneous rock, or
beneath the surface of the Earth, in which case it produces a plutonic or
intrusive igneous rock.
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Types of Magma and their temperatures
Determined by chemical composition of the magma.
• Basaltic magma - SiO2 45-55%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na with
temp ranging from 1000 to 1200 degree centigrade.
• Andesitic magma - SiO2 55-65%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K
with temp ranging from 800 to 1000 degree centigrade.
• Rhyolitic magma - SiO2 65-75%,low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na with
temp ranging from 650 to 800 degree centigrade.
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Igneous rocks are classified into
1. Extrusive or volcanic rocks occur on the surface of the earth (Extrusive
igneous rock is made from lava released by volcanoes).
2. Intrusive or plutonic rocks occur in the subsurface of the earth.
3. Hypabyssal or intermediate rocks occur at shallow depth of less than 1 km
from the surface of the earth.
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Classification of igneous rocks based on their mineral compositon
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Schematic diagrams showing the principles behind fractional
crystallisation in a magma. While cooling, the magma evolves in
composition because different minerals crystallize from the melt.
1: olivine crystallizes;
2: olivine and pyroxene crystallize;
3: pyroxene and plagioclase crystallize;
4: plagioclase crystallizes. At the bottom of the magma reservoir,
a cumulate rock forms.
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Structures of extrusive igneous rocks:
1. Volcanic lava flows as flow structure
2. Lava caves and tunnels
3. Sheet structures
4. Columnar structures
5. Vesicular and amygdaloidal
6. Pillow structures.
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lava cave is any cave formed in volcanic rock, though it typically means caves formed by volcanic
processes.
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Intrusive igneous rock structures
1. Dikes
2. Sills
3. Laccoliths
4. Lopoliths
5. Batholiths
6. Bysmaliths
7. Phacoliths
8. Stock: a stock is an igneous intrusion that has a surface exposure of less than 100 square
kilometers (40 sq. mi), differing from batholiths only in being smaller.
9. Boss: a knoblike mass of rock, especially an outcrop of igneous or metamorphic rock.
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Textures of Igneous Rocks
There are six main types of textures; phaneritic, aphanitic, porphyritic, glassy,
pyroclastic and pegmatitic
Other textures of rocks include: Aphanitic cryptocrystalline,
Seriate, Graphic, interlocking, Equigranular and inequigranular.
All of the above textures of igneous rocks are classified based on degree of
crystallinity in to 4 textural classes:
• Textures based on crystallinity.
• Textures based on granularity.
• Textures based on shape of crystals.
• Textures based on mutual relations of constituent minerals of rocks.
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Textures based on crystallinity.
• Holocrystalline : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed into complete crystals,
i.e., having no glassy part.
• Hemi crystalline : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed into partially crystals
and partially glassy part.
• Holohyaline/ Glossy/ Amourphous : - The texture of an igneous rock minerals formed
completely into glassy.
56. ADITYA
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Textures based on granularity
Aphanitic – The surface of
the rock formed with no
visible mineral crystal and
the minerals crystals are only
visible in petrological
microscope. Mineral crystals
that are visible only under
microscope, then such
microscopic texture is called
as aphanitic cryptocrystalline.
Example: basalt, Obsidian,
Onyx etc.,.
57. ADITYA
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Phaneritic – The surface of
the rock formed with variety
of visible mineral crystals
and can be judged as
phaneritic coarse, phaneritic
medium, phaneritic fine.
Example: varieties of
granites, dolerites etc.,.
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Textures based on a) shape of Crystals.
b) Growth of the Crystals
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Textures based on mutual relations of constituent minerals of rocks.
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After completion of module 2 the student is now able to understand
origin of rocks and structures & textures of igneous rocks.
Summary
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Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
Module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.
Module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.
67. ADITYA
Introduction to structure & textures of
Sedimentary rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar
Sr. Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
68. ADITYA
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, Student will be able to:
LO 1 : Understand the structures & textures of
sedimentary rocks.
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Definition & formation
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of sediments by various geological agents in the form of
layers with varying thickness.
• The thickness of the sediment is based on the amount of sediment load carried by the geological agents.
• The sediments are accumulation of minerals, plant and animal debris, rock fragments, sediments with
varying sizes etc.
• All the layers in the sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition and followed by compaction and
cementation of the sediments as they are loaded on one on another.
• Such type of loading of depositional layer on one on another is known as “order of superposition”.
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The total surface of the
sedimentary rocks on
the surface of the earth
crust cover over 75 %,
while igneous and
metamorphic rocks
occur much deeper
from earth interior.
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Non clastic sedimentary rocks or Chemically formed rocks
• These rocks are formed when water leaches the weathered material and transports the chemically
dissolved solution to low lying areas and forms a chemical deposition in the lakes and ponds.
• These rocks are formed after the evaporation of water hence referred as evaporates, formed in lakes
referred as lacustrine deposits, as concretions, secretions, collides, siliceous, carbonates, bog iron ores.
Concretions: A concretion is a hard, compact mass
of matter formed by the precipitation of mineral
cement within the spaces between particles, and is
found in sedimentary rock or soil. Concretions are
often ovoid or spherical in shape, although
irregular shapes also occur.
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Secretions are deposits formed in the rock cavities, that allow the growth of mineral crystals in them.
Agates have also been found in sedimentary rocks, normally in limestone or dolomite; these sedimentary
rocks acquire cavities often from decomposed branches or other buried organic material. If silica-rich
fluids are able to penetrate into these cavities agates can be formed.
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Collides are accumulation of clay particles as a sediment. Mud rocks is the name of sedimentary rock
formed as clay deposit. Concretionary, pisolithic, oolitic, stalactite, nodular etc., come under the
colloidal depositions.
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Siliceous deposits are formed when a silica solution in hot springs get accumulated at orifice as silica
sinters, which is continues processes of evaporation and cooling of water. Flint and Chert are two
minerals that are formed in sinters and used by early man has hunting tools and in massive form as
construction materials too. Limestone and calcareous sandstones have cryptocrystalline forms of
silica as siliceous deposits.
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Carbonates: Dissolution is the main process of formation of carbonate deposits in various formations
like evaporates, lacustrine, stalactites, dolomitization, fossiliferous formations and as intertrappeans.
Cretaceous–Tertiary
Extinction Boundary
(KTB)
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Common structures of
sedimentary rocks
Stratification is the
common structure in all
the sedimentary rocks, the
layering that occurs in
most sedimentary
rocks and in those igneous
rocks formed at the Earth's
surface, as from lava flows
and volcanic fragmental
deposits. The layers range
from several millimeters to
many meters in thickness
and vary greatly in shape.
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• Stratum means bed and strata means series of beds.
• Other common structures of sedimentary rocks are formed in and on the surface of rock layers.
• Graded Bedding The velocity of the transporting agent decrease the larger or more dense particles
are deposited first, followed by similar particles. The bedding showing a decrease in grain size
from the bottom of the bed to the top of the bed.
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Cross Bedding Consists of set of beds that are inclined relative to one another. The beds are
inclined in the direction that the wind or water was moving at the time of deposition. Cross
bedding is very common in beach deposits, sand dunes, river deposits.
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Ripple marks Caused by waves or winds moves up the sediment into long ridges. →Ripple marks are
shallow water deposition →Asymmetrical ripple marks can give an indication of current direction
→Symmetrical ripple marks form when the waves moves back and forth.
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Mud Cracks on the sediment are developed due to the shrinkage of the sediment as it dries and contracts.
Crack formation also occurs in clayey soils as a result of a reduction in water content.
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Cast and Molds a depression formed on the bottom of a body of water may become a mold, later get
deposited into the depression and will acquire the shape of that depression called cast. The body of
sediment that gets the shape of the mold is cast.
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1.Rain prints or rain drop points: Pits created by falling rain.
2.Tracks and Trails: These features are formed when organisms move across the sediment as they
walk, crawl or drag their body parts through the sediment.
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Sedimentary rocks are completely based on size of the individual clast or grain, shape of
grain and grain arrangement.
Grain size is identified from Wentworth classification
Grain arrangement is either loosely packed or densely packed and it is based on grain shape.
Poorly rounded has less sorting with varying sizes of pore spaces, while well rounded clasts
have well sorting with similar sized pore spaces.
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After completion of module 3 : Structure & Textures of Sedimentary
Rocks.
Summary
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Module 4 : Structure & Textures of Metamorphic
Rocks.
Module 4 : Structure & Textures of Metamorphic
Rocks.
93. ADITYA
Introduction to structure & textures of
Metamorphic rocks.
P. Shiva Kumar
Sr. Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
94. ADITYA
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, Student will be able to:
LO 1 : Understand the structures & textures of
Metamorphic rocks.
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Definition and formation of Metamorphic rocks
Meta means change and morph means form
Which means change in the form of a rock occurring at mineral level, at chemical composition of
mineral with aid of pressure, temperature and hot volatile magmatic fluids, from the initial process of
diagenesis to final process of metamorphism to form a new rock.
• Recrystallization in the solid state
• Caused by changes in T, P or fluids
• New environment = new minerals
• Growing minerals create a new texture
Features of metamorphism:
• It is formed as solid state and before melting.
• Metasomatism is a extensive chemical changes occurring during transformation of rock at different
metamorphic phases.
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Metamorphism is characterized as recrystallization and reorientation of mineral at crystal level.
There are three agents of metamorphism:-
1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Volatile fluids ( chemical active fluids)
Types of metamorphism
1. Thermal metamorphism: temp is predominant
2. Contact metamorphism: the magmatic fluid is in contact with surrounding rock under
metamorphism. There also occurs considerable induce of flux of magma called injection
metamorphism.
3. Dynamic metamorphism: pressure is predominant. There takes place crushing of minerals in rocks
and leads to cataclysm ( formation of rocks with coarser to larger size minerals in a rock).
4. Geothermal metamorphism: temp from interior part of the earth
5. Metasomatic metamorphism: caused by interaction of magmatic fluids with surrounding rocks.
6. Dynamo-thermal metamorphism: in which both temp and pressure are predominant.
7. Plutonic metamorphism: a kind of Dynamo thermal metamorphism occurring at great depths by
increase in pressure increases temperature which cause metamorphic changes in the rock.
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Textures of Metamorphic rocks
The textures of metamorphic rocks are classified into foliated and lineated or non foliated mineral
arrangements.
Foliation: it is an arrangement of minerals which are having form like platy, lamellar, flaky or layered,
themselves elongate perpendicularly to the direction of pressure in the metamorphic process.
Lineation or non foliation: it is an arrangement of minerals which are having form like prismatic, barrel,
tetragonal, hexagonal, columnar, rod shaped, themselves elongate perpendicularly to the direction of
pressure in the metamorphic process.
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• The texture of metamorphism are referred has Crystallobalstic texture, which means the newly
textures that are formed at the time of metamorphism
• Textures of metamorphism are termed with a prefix “Blasto” and suffix “Blastic”.
• Metamorphic rocks carry the parent rocks textures which are well preserved referred to
palimpsest textures.
• The rocks that developed completely formed crystal then that texture is known as Idoblastic
texture and if the texture if partial or incomplete it is referred has Xenoblastic textures.
• Examples like porpyroblastic, phaneroblastic, blastoaphanetic,
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Structures of Metamorphic rocks
• The structure of metamorphic rocks are based on the textures formed in same metamorphic rocks.
• As the mineral arrangement which is texture will decide what type of structure it is.
• Based on this mineral arrangement there are three types of metamorphic rock structures, they are:
Gneissose, Schistose and Granulose.
• Gneiss: The non foliated minerals occurring in a rock as equidimensional along with foliated kind of
minerals and aggregation of all the minerals together takes place in the rock to direction of metamorphic
forces (pressure distribution).
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Schistose: The texture of the rock
occurring with arrangement of
either platy or prismatic or both
platy and prismatic with segregation
of same kind of minerals as lens or
thinner and thicker beds has a
banded formations.
Porphyroclastic, as the
feldspar minerals occur
as mineral lenses.
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Granulose: The arrangement of particularly equidimensional minerals which neither segregate nor form a
banded like formation. But have either very little amount of smaller or larger granules of minerals
occurring in the rock.
Pink Marble Quartzite
102. ADITYA
Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
102
Cataclastic Structures: A high-pressure metamorphism resulting from the crushing and shearing of rock
during tectonic movement, mostly along faults. Cataclastic metamorphism is generally localized along
fault planes (areas of detachment where rocks slide past one another).
103. ADITYA
Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
103
Megascopic identification of physical properties of rocks
The study of a rock specimen in the field work is classified into
Petrography Petro genesis
1. Colour: 6. Origin:
2. Texture 7. Occurrence:
a) Grain Size: 8. Inference:
b) Grain Shape: 9. Distribution:
c) Grain Arrangement or Fabric 10. Uses:
3. Structure:
4. Mineral composition:
5. Cementing material:
108. ADITYA
Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE
108
After completion of module 4 : the student is now able to illustrate
Structure & Textures of Metamorphic Rocks.
Summary
109. ADITYA
Summary
From this unit – 2 students are now able illustrate and
understand the occurrence of minerals, rocks and
their identification.
109
Engineering Geology
P Shiva Kumar, Sr. Assistant Professor, CE