This document summarizes the major endocrine glands and hormones in the human body. It describes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, gonads and other minor endocrine tissues. For each endocrine organ, it lists the key hormones produced and their major functions in maintaining homeostasis, growth, metabolism, and reproduction. In total, it discusses 24 major hormones and their roles in coordinating and regulating various physiological processes.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and hypothalamus. Each gland secretes specific hormones that control important body functions such as growth and development, metabolism, sexual functions, reproduction, and the stress response.
The document summarizes key information about the testes:
1. The testes are male reproductive organs that produce sperm and secrete hormones like testosterone.
2. They have functions of spermatogenesis (sperm production) and secretion of hormones like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone.
3. Hormone levels change throughout life, increasing at puberty and decreasing after age 40, and affect development, sexual characteristics, and fertility.
The document discusses the anatomy of the spinal cord including its structure, blood supply, and syndromes. Key points include:
- The spinal cord is cylindrical in shape and extends from the foramen magnum to the lower border of L1.
- It is surrounded by three protective membranes called the meninges.
- The spinal cord contains grey matter in an H-shaped configuration containing nuclei that are motor, sensory, or visceral.
- White matter tracts carry ascending and descending signals and are located in the anterior, posterior, and lateral columns.
- Important ascending tracts include the lateral and anterior spinothalamic tracts carrying pain/temperature and crude touch.
This document describes the descending tracts of the spinal cord, including the pyramidal tract and extrapyramidal tracts. It discusses the anatomical organization of the tracts with 3 orders of neurons. The corticospinal tracts are described in detail, including their pathway through the brain and decussation in the medulla. Clinical signs of upper and lower motor neuron lesions are compared. Spinal cord injuries and other conditions affecting the spinal cord are also summarized.
The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. These hormones are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Catecholamines act through intracellular mediators and have various effects, such as increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. Their secretion increases during stress, exposure to cold, and hypoglycemia to mobilize energy stores and restore homeostasis.
The document summarizes the important endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland, which secretes growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, ADH, and oxytocin; the adrenal cortex, which secretes cortisol and aldosterone; the thyroid gland, which secretes thyroxine and triiodothyronine; the pancreas, which secretes insulin and glucagon; the ovaries and testes, which secrete estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone; the parathyroid gland, which secretes parathyroid hormone; and the placenta, which secretes HCG, estrogens, progesterone, and HPL.
Sex is determined by chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic factors. Chromosomal sex is determined at fertilization by the presence of either two X chromosomes (female) or one X and one Y chromosome (male). Between 6-8 weeks of gestation, the undifferentiated gonads will develop into either ovaries or testes depending on the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. The development of testes or ovaries then leads to further anatomical changes through the secretion of hormones and regression or development of duct systems that result in either male or female phenotypic characteristics. Disorders of sex development can occur when there is a discrepancy between these factors.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and tissues. The major glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and hypothalamus. Each gland secretes specific hormones that control important body functions such as growth and development, metabolism, sexual functions, reproduction, and the stress response.
The document summarizes key information about the testes:
1. The testes are male reproductive organs that produce sperm and secrete hormones like testosterone.
2. They have functions of spermatogenesis (sperm production) and secretion of hormones like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone.
3. Hormone levels change throughout life, increasing at puberty and decreasing after age 40, and affect development, sexual characteristics, and fertility.
The document discusses the anatomy of the spinal cord including its structure, blood supply, and syndromes. Key points include:
- The spinal cord is cylindrical in shape and extends from the foramen magnum to the lower border of L1.
- It is surrounded by three protective membranes called the meninges.
- The spinal cord contains grey matter in an H-shaped configuration containing nuclei that are motor, sensory, or visceral.
- White matter tracts carry ascending and descending signals and are located in the anterior, posterior, and lateral columns.
- Important ascending tracts include the lateral and anterior spinothalamic tracts carrying pain/temperature and crude touch.
This document describes the descending tracts of the spinal cord, including the pyramidal tract and extrapyramidal tracts. It discusses the anatomical organization of the tracts with 3 orders of neurons. The corticospinal tracts are described in detail, including their pathway through the brain and decussation in the medulla. Clinical signs of upper and lower motor neuron lesions are compared. Spinal cord injuries and other conditions affecting the spinal cord are also summarized.
The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. These hormones are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. Catecholamines act through intracellular mediators and have various effects, such as increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels. Their secretion increases during stress, exposure to cold, and hypoglycemia to mobilize energy stores and restore homeostasis.
The document summarizes the important endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses the pituitary gland, which secretes growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, ADH, and oxytocin; the adrenal cortex, which secretes cortisol and aldosterone; the thyroid gland, which secretes thyroxine and triiodothyronine; the pancreas, which secretes insulin and glucagon; the ovaries and testes, which secrete estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone; the parathyroid gland, which secretes parathyroid hormone; and the placenta, which secretes HCG, estrogens, progesterone, and HPL.
Sex is determined by chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic factors. Chromosomal sex is determined at fertilization by the presence of either two X chromosomes (female) or one X and one Y chromosome (male). Between 6-8 weeks of gestation, the undifferentiated gonads will develop into either ovaries or testes depending on the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. The development of testes or ovaries then leads to further anatomical changes through the secretion of hormones and regression or development of duct systems that result in either male or female phenotypic characteristics. Disorders of sex development can occur when there is a discrepancy between these factors.
The document discusses the adrenal medulla, which secretes catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. It describes the synthesis, regulation of secretion, metabolism, and actions of these hormones. Catecholamines stimulate the nervous system and have effects on metabolism, heart, blood vessels, respiration and other systems through alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. Their secretion increases during stress to prepare the body for fight or flight responses.
This document provides an introduction to osteology, the study of bones. It discusses the classification, macro and microstructure, properties, and functions of bones. Bones are composed of both organic and inorganic materials and come in four types - long, short, flat, and irregular. Cortical bone forms the hard outer layer of bones and has concentric osteons, while cancellous bone is spongy and found at the ends of long bones. Bones provide structure, movement, protection and store minerals in the body.
Visible Body - Sternocleidomastoid and the Scalene MusclesVisible Body
Learn about the anatomy and actions of the muscles in the neck region. Want more anatomy content? Check out the free Musculoskeletal Library! http://go.visiblebody.com/muscle-ebook-library-0
Musculocutaneous nerve & axillary nerve.outputIdris Siddiqui
The axillary nerve emerges from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and passes through the quadrangular space in the axilla. It has both motor and sensory functions. The anterior terminal branch innervates the deltoid muscle, while the posterior terminal branch supplies the teres minor muscle and gives off the upper lateral cutaneous nerve, which provides sensation to the skin over the lower deltoid. Damage to the axillary nerve results in paralysis of the deltoid and teres minor muscles and loss of sensation in the regimental badge area.
The spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from its sides. It occupies the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal and is protected by bony vertebrae and meninges. The spinal cord receives its blood supply from the anterior and posterior spinal arteries as well as segmental arteries. It has an anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus that contain the arteries supplying the cord. Lesions of the spinal cord can result in deficits depending on the location and structures involved, and the cord can be surgically approached through laminectomy.
The scapula, also known as the shoulder blade, is a flat triangular bone located at the back of the trunk and resides over the posterior surface of ribs two to seven. ... It also articulates with the humerus and clavicle, forming the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint and acromioclavicular joint respectively.
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: T3, T4, and calcitonin. T3 and T4 regulate metabolism, while calcitonin regulates calcium levels. The thyroid is located in the neck below the Adam's apple. T3 and T4 are synthesized from tyrosine and stored bound to thyroglobulin. They are regulated by TSH from the pituitary and feedback to decrease TSH secretion. The main actions of thyroid hormones are to increase growth, metabolism, and heart rate. Hypothyroidism is treated with thyroxine replacement therapy.
The document provides an overview of the male reproductive system, including its anatomy and function. It describes the testes, spermatic ducts, and accessory glands. It discusses puberty and the hormonal control of the brain-testicular axis. The role of testosterone in sexual development and maintenance of reproductive functions is also summarized.
This document provides an overview of general physiology concepts including:
- Physiology is the study of how cells, tissues, and organisms function
- Shivering occurs when we feel cold to help warm the body through involuntary muscle contractions
- The hypothalamus detects a fall in temperature and causes shivering to increase body temperature
- Homeostasis refers to maintaining a relatively constant internal environment through feedback mechanisms like negative feedback which acts to reverse changes and positive feedback which accelerates changes.
This document provides an overview of hormones, including:
1. Hormones are chemicals secreted by endocrine glands that travel through the blood and influence other glands and organs. There are two major classes: protein hormones and steroid hormones.
2. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control hormone release through negative feedback loops. The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland.
3. Hormone disorders can occur if glands do not produce the proper hormones. Examples include congenital adrenal hyperplasia and androgen insensitivity syndrome.
The endocrine system coordinates body functions through chemical messenger systems including hormones. Hormones can act locally as neurotransmitters or at distant sites as endocrine hormones. They are classified based on their site of secretion and target cells. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands and has anterior and posterior lobes that secrete hormones like growth hormone, ACTH, TSH, and oxytocin. Hormones act through cell surface receptors and intracellular signaling to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Types of Joint Present in the vertebral column (simplified version)Quan Fu Gan
This document provides a simplified overview of the types of joints found in the vertebral column. It lists and describes the following joints: atlanto-occipital, atlanto-axial, intervertebral, costo-vertebral, costo-transverse, lumbo-sacral, sacro-iliac, and sacro-coccygeal. For each joint, it specifies the type (e.g. synovial, symphysis) and subtype (e.g. condyloid, gliding). The document is intended as a quick review and does not discuss ligaments, muscles, or detailed anatomy.
The document discusses the anatomy of the axial skeleton, specifically the vertebral column and cervical vertebrae. It notes that the vertebral column is made up of 26 vertebrae and provides details on the typical parts of a vertebra including the body, vertebral arch, and processes. It also summarizes the key features and functions of the cervical vertebrae, intervertebral discs, and muscles that control neck movement.
The hypothalamus is located in the posterior part of the forebrain and connects the midbrain to the cerebral hemispheres. It regulates many vital functions such as endocrine function, visceral functions, metabolism, hunger, thirst, sleep, emotions and sexual functions. Some of its key roles include secreting hormones from the posterior pituitary, controlling the anterior pituitary via releasing and inhibitory hormones, regulating adrenal function, autonomic nervous system, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, hunger and food intake, and sleep-wake cycles. Dysfunctions can result in conditions like diabetes insipidus, Frohlich's syndrome, Kallmann's syndrome, and narcolepsy.
There are three main types of ascending tracts that bring sensory information to the brain: 1) Conscious relay pathways transmit information about stimuli location and type to the cerebral cortex. 2) Divergent pathways transmit information to many brain regions involved in both conscious and unconscious processing. 3) Unconscious relay pathways transmit proprioceptive and movement information to the cerebellum for automatic motor adjustments. Within these pathways, the dorsal columns relay conscious touch and proprioception while anterolateral tracts relay pain and temperature. Information also travels via medial pain systems and spinocerebellar tracts for unconscious processing.
The endocrine system involves communication between glands and target cells through chemical messengers called hormones. The pituitary gland located at the base of the brain regulates other endocrine glands through feedback loops. It has an anterior and posterior lobe. The thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which affect metabolism. Thyroxine is converted to the active T3 in target cells. The thyroid synthesizes these hormones by binding iodine to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin within its follicles.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system. It describes that the endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major glands included are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal and hypothalamus. The document outlines the location and hormones secreted by each gland, and their roles in processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development and homeostasis. It also discusses hormone receptors and the role of hormones in maintaining balance in the body.
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
The document discusses the adrenal medulla, which secretes catecholamines including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. It describes the synthesis, regulation of secretion, metabolism, and actions of these hormones. Catecholamines stimulate the nervous system and have effects on metabolism, heart, blood vessels, respiration and other systems through alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. Their secretion increases during stress to prepare the body for fight or flight responses.
This document provides an introduction to osteology, the study of bones. It discusses the classification, macro and microstructure, properties, and functions of bones. Bones are composed of both organic and inorganic materials and come in four types - long, short, flat, and irregular. Cortical bone forms the hard outer layer of bones and has concentric osteons, while cancellous bone is spongy and found at the ends of long bones. Bones provide structure, movement, protection and store minerals in the body.
Visible Body - Sternocleidomastoid and the Scalene MusclesVisible Body
Learn about the anatomy and actions of the muscles in the neck region. Want more anatomy content? Check out the free Musculoskeletal Library! http://go.visiblebody.com/muscle-ebook-library-0
Musculocutaneous nerve & axillary nerve.outputIdris Siddiqui
The axillary nerve emerges from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and passes through the quadrangular space in the axilla. It has both motor and sensory functions. The anterior terminal branch innervates the deltoid muscle, while the posterior terminal branch supplies the teres minor muscle and gives off the upper lateral cutaneous nerve, which provides sensation to the skin over the lower deltoid. Damage to the axillary nerve results in paralysis of the deltoid and teres minor muscles and loss of sensation in the regimental badge area.
The spinal cord has 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from its sides. It occupies the upper two-thirds of the vertebral canal and is protected by bony vertebrae and meninges. The spinal cord receives its blood supply from the anterior and posterior spinal arteries as well as segmental arteries. It has an anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus that contain the arteries supplying the cord. Lesions of the spinal cord can result in deficits depending on the location and structures involved, and the cord can be surgically approached through laminectomy.
The scapula, also known as the shoulder blade, is a flat triangular bone located at the back of the trunk and resides over the posterior surface of ribs two to seven. ... It also articulates with the humerus and clavicle, forming the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint and acromioclavicular joint respectively.
The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: T3, T4, and calcitonin. T3 and T4 regulate metabolism, while calcitonin regulates calcium levels. The thyroid is located in the neck below the Adam's apple. T3 and T4 are synthesized from tyrosine and stored bound to thyroglobulin. They are regulated by TSH from the pituitary and feedback to decrease TSH secretion. The main actions of thyroid hormones are to increase growth, metabolism, and heart rate. Hypothyroidism is treated with thyroxine replacement therapy.
The document provides an overview of the male reproductive system, including its anatomy and function. It describes the testes, spermatic ducts, and accessory glands. It discusses puberty and the hormonal control of the brain-testicular axis. The role of testosterone in sexual development and maintenance of reproductive functions is also summarized.
This document provides an overview of general physiology concepts including:
- Physiology is the study of how cells, tissues, and organisms function
- Shivering occurs when we feel cold to help warm the body through involuntary muscle contractions
- The hypothalamus detects a fall in temperature and causes shivering to increase body temperature
- Homeostasis refers to maintaining a relatively constant internal environment through feedback mechanisms like negative feedback which acts to reverse changes and positive feedback which accelerates changes.
This document provides an overview of hormones, including:
1. Hormones are chemicals secreted by endocrine glands that travel through the blood and influence other glands and organs. There are two major classes: protein hormones and steroid hormones.
2. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control hormone release through negative feedback loops. The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland.
3. Hormone disorders can occur if glands do not produce the proper hormones. Examples include congenital adrenal hyperplasia and androgen insensitivity syndrome.
The endocrine system coordinates body functions through chemical messenger systems including hormones. Hormones can act locally as neurotransmitters or at distant sites as endocrine hormones. They are classified based on their site of secretion and target cells. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands and has anterior and posterior lobes that secrete hormones like growth hormone, ACTH, TSH, and oxytocin. Hormones act through cell surface receptors and intracellular signaling to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Types of Joint Present in the vertebral column (simplified version)Quan Fu Gan
This document provides a simplified overview of the types of joints found in the vertebral column. It lists and describes the following joints: atlanto-occipital, atlanto-axial, intervertebral, costo-vertebral, costo-transverse, lumbo-sacral, sacro-iliac, and sacro-coccygeal. For each joint, it specifies the type (e.g. synovial, symphysis) and subtype (e.g. condyloid, gliding). The document is intended as a quick review and does not discuss ligaments, muscles, or detailed anatomy.
The document discusses the anatomy of the axial skeleton, specifically the vertebral column and cervical vertebrae. It notes that the vertebral column is made up of 26 vertebrae and provides details on the typical parts of a vertebra including the body, vertebral arch, and processes. It also summarizes the key features and functions of the cervical vertebrae, intervertebral discs, and muscles that control neck movement.
The hypothalamus is located in the posterior part of the forebrain and connects the midbrain to the cerebral hemispheres. It regulates many vital functions such as endocrine function, visceral functions, metabolism, hunger, thirst, sleep, emotions and sexual functions. Some of its key roles include secreting hormones from the posterior pituitary, controlling the anterior pituitary via releasing and inhibitory hormones, regulating adrenal function, autonomic nervous system, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, hunger and food intake, and sleep-wake cycles. Dysfunctions can result in conditions like diabetes insipidus, Frohlich's syndrome, Kallmann's syndrome, and narcolepsy.
There are three main types of ascending tracts that bring sensory information to the brain: 1) Conscious relay pathways transmit information about stimuli location and type to the cerebral cortex. 2) Divergent pathways transmit information to many brain regions involved in both conscious and unconscious processing. 3) Unconscious relay pathways transmit proprioceptive and movement information to the cerebellum for automatic motor adjustments. Within these pathways, the dorsal columns relay conscious touch and proprioception while anterolateral tracts relay pain and temperature. Information also travels via medial pain systems and spinocerebellar tracts for unconscious processing.
The endocrine system involves communication between glands and target cells through chemical messengers called hormones. The pituitary gland located at the base of the brain regulates other endocrine glands through feedback loops. It has an anterior and posterior lobe. The thyroid gland produces the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which affect metabolism. Thyroxine is converted to the active T3 in target cells. The thyroid synthesizes these hormones by binding iodine to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin within its follicles.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system. It describes that the endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major glands included are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal and hypothalamus. The document outlines the location and hormones secreted by each gland, and their roles in processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development and homeostasis. It also discusses hormone receptors and the role of hormones in maintaining balance in the body.
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones released into the bloodstream. It includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, pancreas and adrenals. The pituitary is called the "master gland" as it controls many other glands and processes via hormones. Hormones regulate crucial body processes including growth, metabolism, sexual development, and stress response. Imbalances can result in diseases such as diabetes or thyroid disorders.
The endocrine system includes glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target tissues and organs. The major glands are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads, thymus, and pineal. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands by secreting hormones like growth hormone, TSH, and ACTH. The thyroid regulates metabolism and produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine. Disorders include hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. The pancreas produces insulin to regulate blood sugar levels, and diabetes occurs when there is insufficient insulin. Sex glands like the ovaries and testes produce hormones like estrogen, progesterone and test
The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems.
The document provides an overview of endocrinology and various endocrine disorders. It discusses the pituitary gland and its role in regulating other endocrine glands. It also summarizes disorders of the thyroid gland including hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and goiter. Disorders of the parathyroid glands including hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism are also outlined. Finally, it briefly discusses the adrenal glands and diabetes mellitus.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine system. It describes how the endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant target tissues. It provides details about major endocrine glands like the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, and how they regulate important body functions through negative feedback loops and secretion of hormones like thyroid hormones, growth hormone, cortisol, and others. It also explains the different types of stimuli that regulate hormone release and the chemical nature of hormones.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its major components. It discusses how the endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones and works with the nervous system. It describes the major endocrine glands - the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands and pancreas. It explains the hormones produced by each gland and their roles in processes like growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction.
The document discusses the endocrine system. It is made up of glands that produce hormones to regulate various bodily functions. The major glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Hormones are classified as steroid hormones, peptide hormones or amine hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and regulate processes like water balance and sexual development. Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and are produced by glands like the hypothalamus and pituitary. Amine hormones such as adrenaline are derived from amino acids. Endocrine disorders can result from too much or too little hormone production.
The document discusses the endocrine system and its functions. It describes that the endocrine system regulates body activities through hormones released into the bloodstream. It then lists and describes several important endocrine glands and their hormone functions, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and others. The pituitary gland is described as the "master gland" that regulates other endocrine glands and produces several important hormones.
The endocrine system regulates homeostasis, growth, development, reproduction and other processes through the secretion of hormones like peptides, steroids, and amines. Hormones are synthesized in endocrine glands like the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, gonads and pancreas, then secreted into the bloodstream and delivered to target tissues. There, they produce physiological responses through feedback loops to maintain appropriate hormone levels.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas and gonads. Hormones control processes like metabolism, growth, development, reproduction and mood. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to control hormone release from other glands and maintain homeostasis.
The endocrine system regulates body activities through hormone secretion. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pancreas. The pituitary gland, located in the brain, is called the "master gland" as it controls other glands by producing hormones. Its hormones include growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and gonadotropins. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine which regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone which regulates calcium levels. The adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and produce corticosteroids and catecholamines.
The document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It describes the key glands that make up the endocrine system, including the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries/testes. It explains the hormones produced by each gland and their functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, sexual development, and stress response. The endocrine system acts as a chemical communication system alongside the nervous system to orchestrate many essential body functions.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its glands. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, pineal gland and thymus gland. For each gland it describes the hormones produced and their functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, and sexual development. The mechanisms of hormonal secretion and action are also summarized.
The endocrine system includes endocrine glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to target and regulate specific tissues. The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, and sex organs. Hormones regulate growth, metabolism, fluid balance, mood, and reproduction through negative feedback loops that maintain homeostasis.
The thyroid gland is located in the neck below the larynx. It secretes thyroid hormones like thyroxine and triiodothyronine which regulate metabolism. The thyroid can develop several conditions like goiter, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and cancer. Treatment depends on the condition but may include surgery, medication, radiation, or thyroid hormone replacement pills.
ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY LECTURE FOR 300L MBBS-BSc 2019-2020-1.pptOlaniyiEmmanuel5
This document provides an overview of a lecture on endocrine physiology. It begins with an introduction to the endocrine system and hormones. It then covers the classification, properties, and mechanisms of action of hormones. The document outlines the major endocrine glands and hormones, including the pituitary gland and hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary. It discusses disorders of growth hormone and thyroid hormones, including dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly, cretinism, and myxedema. It concludes with an overview of hyperthyroidism.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants in the 19th century to study inheritance patterns of traits like seed color, pod shape, flower color, etc. He found that traits are inherited in predictable ratios and proposed Mendel's laws of inheritance. The laws of segregation, independent assortment and dominance describe how alleles separate and transmit from parents to offspring. Mendel's work established the foundations of classical genetics and heredity.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plantspooja singh
- The document discusses the structures and processes involved in plant fertilization before fertilization occurs, including the development of male and female reproductive structures in flowers.
- It describes in detail the structures of the stamen (pollen sac and pollen grain), pistil, ovule, and embryo sac. Key processes like microsporogenesis, megaspore formation, and double fertilization are summarized.
- Various mechanisms of pollination like autogamy, geitonogamy, xenogamy and biotic/abiotic pollination agents are covered. Outbreeding devices in plants to promote cross-pollination and prevent inbreeding are also mentioned.
1. The document discusses various modes of reproduction in plants including vegetative propagation through runners, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, and offsets. It also discusses sexual reproduction.
2. Sexual reproduction involves gamete formation through gametogenesis, fertilization of male and female gametes, and embryogenesis of the zygote. It can occur internally or externally.
3. After fertilization, the zygote undergoes cell division and differentiation during embryogenesis. In animals, offspring can develop outside the mother's body in eggs (oviparous) or inside the mother's body (viviparous).
This document discusses the structures and properties of macromolecules including proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars linked by glycosidic bonds. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides where nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates are linked by phosphodiester bonds. The structures of these macromolecules range from primary to quaternary levels. DNA exists as a double helix with base pairing between strands. Glycolysis is the 10 step pathway that converts glucose to lactic acid to generate cellular energy in the form of ATP.
This document summarizes the human respiratory system. It describes the major organs involved including the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. It explains the process of breathing including inspiration initiated by diaphragm and intercostal muscle contraction, and expiration through relaxation of these muscles. It also discusses gas exchange, transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, regulation of respiration, and some common respiratory disorders like asthma and emphysema.
Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small molecules that regulate plant growth and development. There are several major classes of PGRs, including auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid. PGRs can promote growth, through cell division and elongation, or inhibit growth. Auxins promote root formation and flowering. Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation. Cytokinins promote leaf growth. Ethylene induces fruit ripening and flowering. Abscisic acid inhibits seed germination and induces dormancy. PGRs allow plants to respond to environmental cues and coordinate various growth processes.
This document discusses the circulatory system in humans. It begins by explaining that blood and lymph are the two main circulatory fluids in the body, with blood being carried in a closed circulatory system of blood vessels and lymph being transported through the lymphatic system. It then describes the components of blood in detail. Next, it explains the structure and functioning of the human heart, including the cardiac cycle. It notes that the heart has four chambers and is able to efficiently circulate blood through a double circulation pathway to the lungs and body.
The human neural system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord for information processing and control, while the PNS comprises nerves associated with the CNS. Nerve fibers of the PNS are afferent (transmit impulses to the CNS) and efferent (transmit impulses from the CNS). The PNS is further divided into the somatic and autonomic systems. Neurons are the basic structural and functional units, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and axon. Impulses are generated and conducted along neurons when the membrane becomes permeable to ions, then restored to its
The document summarizes excretion in animals and humans. It discusses the major nitrogenous wastes excreted, such as ammonia, urea, and uric acid. It describes the key excretory organs in different animal groups, including kidneys, nephridia, malpighian tubules, and green glands. For humans, it outlines the structure and function of nephrons, collecting ducts, and other components of the urinary system in removing wastes and regulating water and electrolyte balance. Key processes like glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and the countercurrent mechanism are also explained.
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other food molecules within cells to extract energy to fuel life processes through oxidation reactions. Glucose undergoes glycolysis to form pyruvate, which is further oxidized in the mitochondria through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain to generate large amounts of ATP, the energy currency of cells. Aerobic respiration completely oxidizes glucose to carbon dioxide and water, trapping energy from electron carriers in ATP. Fermentation pathways produce little ATP and do not fully oxidize glucose.
Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Unicellular organisms can live independently while multicellular organisms are made of many cells that work together. Cells come in various shapes and sizes depending on their function. Prokaryotic cells like bacteria are generally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells found in plants, animals and fungi. Both have a cell membrane but eukaryotic cells also have organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria and Golgi apparatus that are not present in prokaryotes.
The document describes the four basic types of animal tissues - epithelial, connective, muscular and neural tissue. It provides details about the structure and functions of each type of tissue. Epithelial tissues cover and line body surfaces. Connective tissues connect, support and integrate organs. Muscle tissues allow body movement. Neural tissues control and coordinate body functions.
This document summarizes the morphology and structure of flowers in angiosperm plants. It describes the basic parts of a flower including the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium. It also discusses flower symmetry, aestivation, placentation, and provides examples of different inflorescence types. As an example, it thoroughly outlines the characteristics of flowers in the Solanaceae family, which includes important crops like tomato, potato, and chili peppers.
- Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose.
- Early experiments by Joseph Priestley and Julius von Sachs helped reveal that plants restore oxygen to the air that animals remove and that glucose is produced through a process involving sunlight, chlorophyll and carbon dioxide.
- Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of plant leaves. The light reactions use energy from sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, while the carbon reactions use these products to fix carbon and produce sugars like glucose.
This document provides an overview of animal classification. It discusses that animals are classified based on fundamental features like cell arrangement, body symmetry, presence of coelom, and patterns of organ systems. The key levels of organization from cellular to organ systems are described. Important characteristics used for classification, like symmetry, diploblastic/triploblastic nature, presence of coelom, segmentation, and notochord, are defined. Finally, the major animal phyla are introduced, with 1-2 defining features provided for each.
- Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes, such as sperm or egg cells, with half the normal number of chromosomes. It involves two rounds of division instead of one, resulting in four daughter cells from one parent cell.
- During meiosis I, homologous chromosome pairs align and separate, reducing the chromosome number by half. Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids separate to produce four haploid gametes. This ensures genetic variation between offspring and maintains the chromosome number across generations.
The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and digestive glands. The alimentary canal runs from the mouth to the anus and contains structures like the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. Digestive glands include the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. Enzymes and acids in saliva, gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice chemically break down food into small molecules that can be absorbed in the small intestine and used by the body.
1. The document classifies plants into five kingdoms - algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
2. It describes key characteristics of each group such as their reproductive structures, life cycles, and examples.
3. Angiosperms are distinguished by their production of flowers which contain male stamens and female pistils, leading to double fertilization and the enclosure of seeds in fruits.
R.H. Whittaker proposed a five kingdom classification system in 1969 based on cell structure, organism complexity, nutrition, reproduction, and phylogeny. The five kingdoms are Monera (bacteria), Protista (single-celled eukaryotes), Fungi, Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals). Viruses were not included because they are not considered living but are infectious particles that cause diseases.
The document discusses cell signaling pathways and regulation. It describes different types of cell signaling including autocrine, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine, and juxtacrine signaling. It also discusses various signaling molecules like hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors, and cytokines. The different types of cell surface receptors and intracellular receptors are described, including G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and ion channel receptors. The mechanisms of various cell signaling pathways such as G protein signaling and MAP kinase pathways are summarized. Disorders related to improper cell signaling are also mentioned.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
Plant breeding for disease resistance is a strategy to reduce crop losses caused by disease. Plants have an innate immune system that allows them to recognize pathogens and provide resistance. However, breeding for long-lasting resistance often involves combining multiple resistance genes
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
2. • Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence, called ductless glands.
• Exocrine glands are cellular structures or organs that secrete
substances external to the body through a ductal system
• Lacrimal Glands– include tear ducts near each eye.
• Pancreas– Secretes pancreatic juice along with the digestive
enzymes into the stomach.
• Salivary Glands- secretes saliva along with digestive enzymes.
• Liver- secretes bile that contains salts and digestive substances.
• Mammary Glands- secrete breast milk.
• Eccrine Sweat Glands- release salty water through perspiration.
3.
4. • The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers
and are produced in trace amounts.
• Invertebrates possess very simple endocrine systems with few hormones
whereas a large number of chemicals act as hormones and provide
coordination in the vertebrates
5. HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The endocrine glands and hormones
produced by them is called endocrine
system
Hypothalamus
Pituitary,
Pineal,
Thyroid,
Adrenal,
Pancreas,
Parathyroid,
Thymus and
Gonads (testis in males and ovary in
females)
• are the organised endocrine bodies in
our body
6. • In addition to these, some other organs, e.g.,
gastrointestinal tract,
liver,
kidney,
heart also produce hormones
7. Hypothalamus
• As you know, the hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon, forebrain
• It contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which
produce hormones.
• These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary
hormones
• the hormones produced by hypothalamus are of two types,
• the releasing hormones (which stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones)
• the inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones)
8. • A hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)
stimulates the pituitary synthesis and release of gonadotrophins.
• On the other hand, somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the release
of growth hormone from the pituitary
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
GnRH
Gonadotrophin
Growth hormone
somatostatin
9. • The hormones originating in the
hypothalamic neurons, pass through
axons and are released from their
nerve endings.
• These hormones reach the pituitary
gland through a portal circulatory
system and regulate the functions of
the anterior pituitary.
• The posterior pituitary is under the
direct neural regulation of the
hypothalamus
10. Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica and is
attached to hypothalamus by a stalk
12. • Anterior pituitary, produces
1. Growth hormone (GH),
2. Prolactin (PRL),
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
4. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH),
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
6. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
• Pars intermedia secretes only one
hormone called
7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone
(MSH).
• Posterior pituitary, stores and
releases two hormones called
8. Oxytocin and
9. Vasopressin,
• which are actually synthesised by
the hypothalamus and are
transported axonally to
neurohypophysis.
13. • Over-secretion of 1. Growth Hormone
stimulates abnormal growth of the body
leading to gigantism
• low secretion of GH results in stunted
growth resulting in pituitary dwarfism.
• Excess secretion of growth hormone in
adults especially in middle age can result
in severe disfigurement (especially of the
face) called Acromegaly,
• It may lead to serious complications, and
premature death if unchecked.
• The disease is hard to diagnose in the early
stages and often goes undetected for
many years, until changes in external
features become noticeable.
14. • 2. Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands and
formation of milk in them.
• 3. TSH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones
from the thyroid gland.
• 4. ACTH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones
called glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
• 5. LH and 6. FSH stimulate gonadal activity and hence are called
gonadotrophins.
• In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones
called androgens from testis.
• In males, FSH and androgens regulate spermatogenesis.
15. • Follicle Stimulating Hormone stimulates growth and development of the
ovarian follicles in females
• Luteinizing hormone induces ovulation of fully mature follicles (graafian
follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum
16. • 7. Melanocyte stimulating hormone acts on the melanocytes (melanin
containing cells) and regulates pigmentation of the skin.
• 8. Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates their
contraction.
• In females, it stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of child
birth, and milk ejection from the mammary gland.
• 9. Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates reabsorption of
water and electrolytes by the distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of
water through urine (diuresis).
• Hence, it is also called as anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).
• An impairment affecting synthesis or release of ADH results in a diminished
ability of the kidney to conserve water leading to water loss and
dehydration.
• This condition is known as Diabetes Insipidus.
17. Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of
forebrain.
• Pineal secretes a hormone called
(10)melatonin.
• Melatonin plays a very important role in the
regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our
body.
• For example, it helps in maintaining the normal
rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body
temperature.
• In addition, melatonin also influences
metabolism, pigmentation, the menstrual cycle
as well as our defense capability
18. Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland is composed
of two lobes which are located
on either side of the trachea
• Both the lobes are
interconnected with a thin flap
of connective tissue called
isthmus.
• The thyroid gland is composed
of follicles and stromal tissues.
19. • Follicular cells synthesise two hormones, (11) tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4 ) and
(12)triiodothyronine (T3 ).
• Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid.
• Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid
gland, commonly called goitre
• Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the
growing baby leading to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence
quotient, abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.
20. • Due to cancer of the thyroid gland or due to development of nodules of the
thyroid glands,
• the rate of synthesis and secretion of the thyroid hormones is increased to
abnormal high levels leading to a condition called hyperthyroidism
• which adversely affects the body physiology.
• Exopthalmic goitre is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by
enlargement of the thyroid gland,
protrusion of the eyeballs,
increased basal metabolic rate,
weight loss,
• also called Graves’ disease.
21. • Thyroid hormones play an important role in the regulation of the basal
metabolic rate.
• These hormones also support the process of red blood cell formation.
• Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.
• Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced by thyroid
hormones.
• Thyroid gland also secretes a protein hormone called (13)thyrocalcitonin
(TCT) which regulates the blood calcium levels.
22. Parathyroid Gland
• In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the
back side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in the
two lobes of the thyroid gland
• The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone
called (14)parathyroid hormone (PTH).
• The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating
levels of calcium ions.
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca2+ levels
in the blood.
23. • PTH acts on bones and stimulates the process of bone resorption
(dissolution/ demineralisation).
• PTH also stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ by the renal tubules and
increases Ca2+ absorption from the digested food.
• It is, thus, clear that PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone, i.e., it increases the
blood Ca2+ levels.
• Along with thyrocalcitonin (TCT), it plays a significant role in calcium
balance in the body.
24. Thymus
• The thymus gland is a lobular
structure located between lungs
behind sternum on the ventral side of
aorta.
• The thymus plays a major role in the
development of the immune system.
• This gland secretes the peptide
hormones called (15)thymosins.
25. • Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes,
which provide cell-mediated immunity.
• In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies to
provide humoral immunity.
• Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased
production of thymosins.
• As a result, the immune responses of old persons become weak.
26. Adrenal Gland
• Our body has one pair of adrenal
glands, one at the anterior part
of each kidney
• The gland is composed of two
types of tissues.
• The centrally located tissue is
called the adrenal medulla, and
outside this lies the adrenal
cortex
27. • The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called (16)adrenaline
(epinephrine) and (17)noradrenaline (norepinephrine.)
• These are commonly called as catecholamines.
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly secreted in response to stress of
any kind and during emergency situations and are called
emergency hormones or hormones of Fight or Flight.
• These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of
hairs), sweating etc.
• Both the hormones increase the heart beat, the strength of heart
contraction and the rate of respiration.
• Catecholamines also stimulate the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an
increased concentration of glucose in blood.
• In addition, they also stimulate the breakdown of lipids and proteins.
28. • The adrenal cortex can be divided into
three layers, called zona reticularis (inner
layer), zona fasciculata (middle layer) and
zona glomerulosa (outer layer).
• The adrenal cortex secretes many
hormones, commonly called as
(18)corticoids.
• The corticoids, which are involved in
carbohydrate metabolism are called
glucocorticoids.
• In our body, cortisol is the main
glucocorticoid.
• Corticoids, which regulate the balance of
water and electrolytes in our body are
called mineralocorticoids.
• (19)Aldosterone is the main
mineralocorticoid in our body.
29. • Underproduction of hormones by the adrenal cortex alters carbohydrate
metabolism causing acute weakness and fatigue leading to a disease called
Addison’s disease.
• Pancreas is a composite gland which acts as both exocrine and endocrine
gland.
• The endocrine pancreas consists of ‘Islets of Langerhans’.
• There are about 1 to 2 million Islets of Langerhans in a normal human
pancreas
• The two main types of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called α-cells and β-
cells.
PANCREAS
30. • The α-cells secrete a hormone called
(20)glucagon, while the β-cells secrete
(21)insulin.
• Glucagon is a peptide hormone, and
plays an important role in maintaining
the normal blood glucose levels
• Glucagon acts mainly on the liver cells
and stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in
an increased blood sugar
(hyperglycemia)
• In addition, this hormone stimulates the
process of gluconeogenesis which also
contributes to hyperglycemia
• Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose
uptake and utilisation
• Thus, glucagon is a hyperglycemic
hormone
31. • Insulin is a peptide hormone, which plays a major role in the regulation of
glucose homeostasis.
• Insulin acts mainly on hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue),
and enhances cellular glucose uptake and utilisation.
• As a result, there is a rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes
and adipocytes resulting in decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).
• Insulin also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in the
target cells.
• The glucose homeostasis in blood is thus maintained jointly by the two –
insulin and glucagons.
32. • Prolonged hyperglycemia leads to a complex disorder called diabetes
mellitus
• which is associated with loss of glucose through urine and formation
of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies.
• Diabetic patients are successfully treated with insulin therapy.
33. Testis
• A pair of testis is present in the scrotal
sac (outside abdomen) of male
individuals
• Testis performs dual functions as a
primary sex organ as well as an
endocrine gland.
• Testis is composed of seminiferous
tubules and stromal or interstitial
tissue.
• The Leydig cells or interstitial cells,
which are present in the intertubular
spaces produce a group of hormones
called androgens mainly
(22)testosterone.
34. • Androgens regulate the
development, maturation and
functions of the male accessory sex
organs like
epididymis,
vas deferens,
seminal vesicles,
prostate gland,
urethra etc.
• These hormones stimulate
muscular growth, growth of facial
and axillary hair, aggressiveness,
low pitch of voice etc.
• Androgens play a major
stimulatory role in the process of
spermatogenesis (formation of
spermatozoa).
• Androgens act on the central
neural system and influence the
male sexual behaviour (libido).
• These hormones produce
anabolic (synthetic) effects on
protein and carbohydrate
metabolism
35. Ovary
• ovary produces two groups of
steroid hormones called
(23)estrogen and
(24)progesterone.
• Ovary is composed of ovarian
follicles and stromal tissues.
• The estrogen is synthesised and
secreted mainly by the growing
ovarian follicles.
• After ovulation, the ruptured
follicle is converted to a structure
called corpus luteum, which
secretes mainly progesterone.
36. • Estrogens produce wide ranging actions such as stimulation of growth and
activities of
female secondary sex organs,
development of growing ovarian follicles,
appearance of female secondary sex characters (e.g., high pitch of voice,
etc.),
mammary gland development.
• Estrogens also regulate female sexual behaviour.
• Progesterone supports pregnancy.
• Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the
formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which store milk) and milk secretion.
37. HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
• The atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide hormone
called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF),
• It decreases blood pressure.
• When blood pressure is increased, ANF is secreted which causes dilation of
the blood vessels.
• This reduces the blood pressure.
38. • The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone called
erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of RBC).
• Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract
secrete four major peptide hormones,
1. Gastrin acts on the gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
2. Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water
and bicarbonate ions.
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) acts on both pancreas and gall bladder and
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile juice, respectively.
4. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility
39. MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
• Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins
called hormone receptors located in the target tissues only.
• Two types of hormone receptors
• membrane-bound receptors- present on the cell membrane of the target cells
• intracellular receptors- present inside the target cell (present in the nucleus).
• Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-
receptor complex
• Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in
the target tissue
• Target tissue metabolism and hence physiological functions are regulated by
hormones
40. • On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into
groups :
• (i) peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon,
pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.)
• (ii) steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
• (iii) iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
• (iv) amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine)
41. MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS
• Hormones which interact with membrane-bound receptors normally do not
enter the target cell, but generate second messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP, IP3
, Ca++ etc) which in turn regulate cellular metabolism
42. INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
• Hormones which interact with intracellular receptors (e.g., steroid
hormones, iodothyronines, etc.) mostly regulate gene expression or
chromosome function by the interaction of hormone-receptor complex with
the genome