Effects of Norepinephrine and Epinephrine on Cardiomyocyte
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The document describes the process of how epinephrine and norepinephrine trigger contraction of cardiac muscle cells. It involves: 1) The binding of epinephrine/norepinephrine to β-adrenergic receptors on cardiac cells, activating associated G proteins. 2) The G proteins activate adenylate cyclase, catalyzing the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP). 3) cAMP activates protein kinase A, which phosphorylates proteins involved in calcium ion movement and muscle contraction.
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1) The Calvin cycle fixes carbon from carbon dioxide into organic molecules like glucose. It uses energy from light reactions to convert CO2 into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in chloroplasts.
2) The key enzyme is RuBisCO, which catalyzes the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate with CO2 to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. These are then reduced and regenerated into more ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate in a cyclic process.
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Arabinose operon and their regulation and arac
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The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and involves 8 steps to completely oxidize acetyl groups derived from pyruvate. During each turn of the cycle, acetyl CoA adds to oxaloacetate to form citrate. As citrate is further modified, carbon dioxide is released and NADH, FADH2, and ATP are generated. One turn of the Krebs cycle results in the production of 3 NADH molecules, 1 ATP, and 1 FADH2.
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The C3 cycle, also known as the Calvin cycle, occurs in the dark phase of photosynthesis and involves fixing carbon dioxide into organic molecules like glucose. It consists of three main stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration. During fixation, the enzyme rubisco incorporates CO2 into ribulose bisphosphate, producing two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. These are then reduced using ATP and NADPH in the reduction stage. Finally, the cycle is regenerated as the original ribulose bisphosphate is reformed, allowing it to fix another CO2. The C3 cycle is essential for carbon assimilation in photosynthesis and the primary producer of organic compounds and food energy in plants. It occurs in all photosynthetic organisms
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Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy from the sun, carbon dioxide, and water into chemical energy in the form of glucose and oxygen. It occurs in two phases - the light reaction phase which occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and produces ATP and NADPH using light, water and chlorophyll. The dark reaction phase, also called the Calvin cycle, uses the ATP and NADPH to fix carbon from carbon dioxide into glucose through three steps - carboxylation, reduction, and regeneration of RuBP to repeat the cycle and produce more glucose.
Signal transduction
Signal transduction is the process of transferring signals from outside the cell to inside the cell. It involves stimuli binding to receptors which then activate primary and secondary messengers. There are three main types of receptors: enzyme-linked receptors which undergo a conformational change to activate enzymes, ion channel-linked receptors which allow ion flow, and G-protein coupled receptors which activate heterotrimeric G proteins. Secondary messengers such as cyclic AMP then carry the signal within the cell to trigger responses like glycogen breakdown.
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The adrenal gland, catecholamine synthesis
The adrenal gland is located above the kidneys and comprises an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex contains three zones that secrete different hormones - the zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids, the zona fasiculata secretes glucocorticoids and androgens, and the zona reticularis secretes androgens. The medulla secretes catecholamines including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine which are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine and help the body respond to stress. Catecholamines signal through alpha and beta adrenoreceptors and are degraded by catechol-O-methyl transferase and monoamine oxid
Thyroid hormone by Dr. Anurag Yadav
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Catecholamines & noncatecholamines
This document discusses catecholamines and non-catecholamines used as autonomic drugs. It describes the classifications of autonomic drugs and their mechanisms of action. Specific catecholamines discussed include norepinephrine, epinephrine, isoproterenol, and dopamine. Non-catecholamines discussed include ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, methylphenidate, phenylpropanolamine, and oxymetazoline. Their pharmacological effects, clinical uses, and dosages are summarized for various conditions and species. The document provides an overview of important adrenergic drugs and their mechanisms and applications in veterinary medicine.
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The document summarizes key aspects of the dopaminergic system. It discusses neurotransmitters like dopamine and their roles in synaptic transmission. It describes the major dopamine pathways in the brain and their associations with conditions like Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, depression, and substance abuse. These pathways originate in areas like the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area and project to regions involved in movement, reward, emotion, and cognition. The summary reviews dopamine synthesis, storage, release, reuptake, and degradation. Drugs that affect the dopaminergic system in treating disorders are also mentioned.
Pharmacology of dopamine
This document provides an overview of the pharmacology of dopamine. It discusses dopamine synthesis, receptors, pathways in the brain, and the role of dopamine in conditions like Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addiction. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine and tyrosine and acts on D1-like and D2-like receptors in the mesolimbic, mesocortical, and nigrostriatal pathways. Imbalances in dopaminergic signaling are implicated in disorders such as Parkinson's, schizophrenia, and ADHD. Drugs that modify dopamine transmission are used to treat these conditions.
ADRENAL CORTEX AND GLUCOCORTICOIDS I
The document discusses the adrenal gland. It describes the adrenal gland's anatomical location, size, and composition of an outer cortex that secretes cortisol hormones and an inner medulla that secretes catecholamines. The cortex contains three zones - zona glomerulosa, zona fasiculata, and zona reticularis - that secrete different hormones. The document outlines hormone production, levels, transport, metabolism, and the hypothalamic-pituitary regulation of cortisol secretion.
Ph and buffer
This document discusses acid-base balance and pH. It defines pH as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with values below 7 being acidic and above 7 being basic. The body maintains acid-base balance through buffer systems like bicarbonate and proteins, and respiratory and renal compensation mechanisms. Disturbances in acid-base balance can cause metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, or respiratory alkalosis.
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Slideshare second messengers aj
1. Second messengers are small intracellular molecules that transmit signals within cells after extracellular signaling molecules (hormones or neurotransmitters) bind to cell surface receptors.
2. There are three main types of second messenger systems: cyclic AMP (cAMP), cyclic GMP (cGMP), and inositol trisphosphate (IP3)/diacylglycerol (DAG). These systems activate protein kinases or trigger the release of calcium ions to produce a physiological response.
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Small G proteins bind either GDP or GTP and function as molecular switches. When bound to GTP, they interact with and activate target proteins. Heterotrimeric G proteins are composed of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits and bind to G protein-coupled receptors in the cell membrane. When a ligand binds the receptor, it activates the G protein, causing the alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP. The alpha subunit then activates downstream effector molecules like adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), which activates protein kinase A and triggers phosphorylation of target proteins to elicit cellular responses.
Second messenger system
Secondary messengers are intracellular signaling molecules that are released within cells in response to extracellular signaling molecules known as first messengers like hormones and neurotransmitters. Common examples include cyclic AMP, inositol trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and calcium ions. These secondary messengers help amplify and propagate intracellular signals by binding to target proteins and modulating their activity, often through phosphorylation. They allow cells to mount robust physiological responses despite the extracellular signals not directly crossing the cell membrane.
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This document summarizes the cyclic AMP pathway, which is a major intracellular signaling pathway utilized by many hormones and extracellular molecules. It involves hormones binding to cell surface receptors and activating G proteins, which then activate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase. This leads to formation of the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP. cAMP then activates protein kinase A and causes phosphorylation of target proteins, amplifying the hormone signal and eliciting a physiological response. The document lists many hormones that use this cAMP pathway and outlines the key steps of receptor activation, G protein activation, adenylyl cyclase activation, cAMP formation, and protein kinase A activation. It also discusses how cAMP signaling is terminated by
Laya k pillai
This document summarizes the cyclic AMP pathway, which is a major intracellular signaling pathway utilized by many hormones and extracellular molecules. It involves hormones binding to cell surface receptors and activating G proteins, which then activate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase to produce the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP. cAMP then activates protein kinase A and leads to phosphorylation of target proteins to elicit physiological responses. The actions of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterase breaking it down into AMP or by phosphatases dephosphorylating proteins. Disruption of this pathway by toxins can impair the host's defense abilities.
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Second messengers are small intracellular molecules that amplify signals received at cell surface receptors and help transmit them to target molecules within the cell. They include cyclic nucleotides like cAMP and cGMP, calcium ions, inositol trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and nitric oxide. These second messengers activate intracellular enzyme and protein targets that trigger cellular responses like changes in metabolism, gene expression, and cell growth. Earl Sutherland discovered cAMP as the first second messenger and won the 1971 Nobel Prize for this foundational discovery in cell signaling pathways.
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1. Vesicles bud off from donor membranes with v-SNAREs and are carried along microtubules by motor proteins to target membranes containing t-SNAREs.
2. Vesicle and target membrane tethering proteins bring the two close together to allow v- and t-SNAREs to associate and fuse the vesicle and target membrane.
3. Rab GTPases regulate vesicle movement and docking by cycling between active GTP-bound and inactive GDP-bound states.
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This document summarizes various cellular signaling pathways. It discusses how receptors can be linked to enzymatic activities like protein kinases and guanylyl cyclases. It then describes several key intracellular signaling pathways, including the cyclic AMP pathway, cyclic GMP pathway, phospholipid and calcium signaling, PI3 kinase/Akt pathway, and MAP kinase pathway. Each of these pathways transmit signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular targets and regulate processes like gene expression, metabolism, cell growth and differentiation.
phosphatases and kinase in cell signalling
1. Kinases and phosphatases work together to regulate cell signaling through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins. Kinases add phosphate groups while phosphatases remove them, allowing rapid and transient signaling responses.
2. There are three main classes of protein kinases - serine/threonine kinases, tyrosine kinases, and mixed kinases. Key kinase families discussed include PKA, PKC, calcium/calmodulin dependent kinases, receptor tyrosine kinases, and MAP kinases.
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ROLE OF SECOND MESSENGERS IN RECEPTOR SIGNAL TRABSDUCTION
1. WHAT IS SECONDARY MESSENGER SYSTEM
2. REQUIREMENTS & CLASSIFICATION
3. cAMP, CGMP, IP3/DAG, Ca++ IONS, NITRIC OXIDE, PDE
4. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES
Cell Signaling through GCPRs and intracellular receptors.pptx
Cell- Cell communication
Cell surface receptors
GPCRs
Intracellular signaling mechanisms
Second messenger system
Second Messenger Systems
The document discusses second messenger systems. It describes how second messengers relay signals from cell surface receptors to target molecules inside the cell. Some key points discussed include:
- Earl Sutherland discovered cyclic AMP (cAMP) as the second messenger for epinephrine and won the Nobel Prize for this work.
- Common second messenger systems include those using cAMP, cGMP, phosphatidylinositol, and tyrosine kinases as secondary messengers.
- G proteins act as transducers between receptors and effectors and are important drug targets.
- cAMP and cGMP have several downstream targets including protein kinases that phosphorylate other proteins and regulate various cellular processes.
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The document summarizes key aspects of signal transduction pathways involving smooth muscle relaxation. It describes how acetylcholine binds to receptors on endothelial cells, activating a G protein which signals the production of nitric oxide (NO). NO then diffuses into the smooth muscle cell where it binds receptors and activates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP levels. cGMP activates protein kinase G, which phosphorylates calcium channels and causes them to close. With reduced calcium levels, the smooth muscle relaxes. The document also provides an overview of different receptor types, molecular switches in pathways, and differences between heterotrimeric and small G proteins.
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Effects of Norepinephrine and Epinephrine on Cardiomyocyte
- 1. Submitted by: Aldrin J. Corañez 4BIO4
- 2. See the overview of the process… • Click on a picture to know what structure it is. Click on it again to hide note. • Click on the step e.g. 1 to know what specifically happens. Click again to hide the steps OR Proceed to the animation
- 3. 1. Binding of norepinephrine Epinephrine or or epinephrine changes the Ca2+ Norepinephrine β1 adrenergic shape of the ions molecules which activates the receptor, associated G protein. 5. The proteinThe protein kinase 8. kinase 1 Epinephrine/ phosporylates the phosphorylates L-type Ca2+ norepinephrine Adenylate sarcoplasmic Ca2+ ATPase, channels, allowing Ca2+ to receptor cyclase enter the cell, whichremoval of Ca speeding the 2+ 2 stimulatesfrom the cytoplasm during contraction. 3 relaxation, which decreases relaxation time. 4.The G protein α subunit The cAMP activates cAMP G 2. 3. Adenylate cyclase Protein protein kinase A. activates adenylate cyclase. catalyzes the conversion 5 of ATP to cAMP. 4 8 Ca2+ 7. The protein kinase ATPase 6. The protein kinase phosphorylates myosin, 6 phosphorylates Ca2+ channels stimulating contraction. Inactive Active on the sarcoplasmic protein 7 protein reticulum, allowing Ca2+ to kinase kinase move to the cytoplasm, which stimulates contraction.
- 10. P
- 11. P P P
- 12. P
- 13. P
- 14. P
- 15. P
Editor's Notes
- Epinephrine scattered and attaching to recpetor, gtp attaching with g protein
- Moving alpha subunit protein
- Moving alpha subunit protein