The document discusses principles for effective multimedia learning from Ruth Colvin Clark's book. It covers topics like how people learn via different senses and channels. Key principles discussed include: - The multimedia principle - people learn more from words and pictures than from words alone. - The contiguity principle - text should be placed near the graphics it corresponds to for easier understanding. - The modality principle - words should be in audio rather than graphic form for effective use of visual and auditory channels. - The redundancy principle - identical words should not be presented as both onscreen text and audio narration.

1. Based on Ruth Colvin Clark’s Book
Presented By Dimas Agung Prasetyo

2.  E-learning
 Learning Theories
 How people learn
 Multimedia principles for Multimedia Learning

3. 90% of universities have distance
learning
$50-60 billion/year spent on
corporate and governmental
training
Toward knowledge-based economy
10 Elearning Statictics

4.  Instruction delivered via computer
 Content relevant to learning objectives
 Uses instructional methods such as examples and practice
 Builds new knowledge and skills

5. Media elements present and illustrate
content
 Text, audio narration, music, graphics, animation
and video
 E.g., Dreamweaver course uses audio narration
and animated graphics
 Instructional techniques support learning
 Examples, practice exercises, feedback
 E.g., Dreamweaver lesson uses simulation
practice
 Why might simulating an actual work
environment
be particularly effective?

6. Cognitive skills: solving problems, applying
rules, distinguishing items
 E.g., how to complete tax forms
Psychomotor skills: coordination physical
movement and thought
 E.g., driving a golf ball or driving a crane
 Require coaching and detailed feedback
 Attitudinal skills: opinions and behaviors
 E.g., whether to recycle
Which is hardest to teach with multimedia?

7.  Receptive: information acquisition
 Learning adds information to memory
 Instruction delivers information efficiently
Directive: response strengthening
 Strengthen stimulus-response associations
 Drill-and-practice with reinforcing feedback
Guided discovery: knowledge construction
 Learner builds a mental representation
 Guide learner in the context of solving problems
 Is one theory right? Or a combination?

8.  Inform: build awareness, e.g., about a
company’s organization
 Perform: build skills, e.g., how to use software
or how to evaluate bank loans
 Procedural: step-by step tasks
 Near transfer from training to application
 Learning Dreamweaver may involve near transfer? Why?
Give an example.
 Principle-based: guidelines and problem-solving
skills
 Far transfer from training to application
 Why does learning how to evaluate bank loans far transfer?

9.  Failure to do job or skill analysis
 Presenting skills and knowledge out of job context
risks transfer failure
 How could this pitfall affect your project?
 Failure to accommodate human learning
 Multimedia can actually depress learning if it
overwhelms limits of human processing
 Attrition: e-Learning dropouts at least 35%
 Games and stories may detract from learning
Why?

10.  Human memory has two
channels for processing
information: visual and
auditory.
 Human memory has a
limited capacity for
processing information.
 Learning occurs by
active processing in the
memory system.
 New knowledge and
skills must be retrieved
from long-term memory
for transfer to the job.

11.  The Learning Cycle: Sense → Integrate → Act
 Learning originates with concrete sensory experience
 Reflective observation integrates inputs in patterns
and develops generalizations or abstract hypotheses
 Active learning tests the results of motor output

13. Delivery Method Retention
Lecture 05%
Reading 10%
Audio-Visual 20%
Demonstration 30%
Discussion Group 50%
Practice Doing It 75%
Do It on the Job 90%
Retention can be improved with follow-up reviews and feedback.

14.  Using an arrow or color to draw the eye to important
information?
 Listing learning objectives up front?
 Omitting background music?
 Using succinct text?
 Ask about trouble-shooting actions relevant to job context?

15.  Informal studies: observing people as they learn or
asking them about it
 Formative evaluation makes changes from learner feedback
 Summative evaluation reports results to sponsors & others
 Formal studies use experimental research design,
with subjects randomly assigned to test and control
groups
 Controlled: compare outcomes of 2 or more groups of learners
 Clinical trials: evaluate e-learning in real world contexts
 Should show statistical significance (p<.05)
 Book uses results of controlled studies that suggest
basic design principles for e-learning
 Why is experimental basis useful?

16.  VP thinks a short course should just consist of text and tells
course designer:
 “Everything they need to know is in
the text. All they have to do is read it.
And we don’t have much time!”
 How should the course designer react?
 “Do you mind if I come up with something that builds on your
text?”

17.  Include both words and graphics
 Why?
 Graphics facilitate active learning, mentally making connection
between pictorial and verbal representations
 Words alone may cause shallow learning

18.  Decorative vs. explanative illustrations
 What’s the difference?
 Decorative pictures are eye candy
 Explanative illustrations help learner understand the material
 Instructional designer’s job is to enable learner to make sense
of information

19.  Term ‘Focus’

20.  Decorative pictures are “eye candy”
 Why? Give an example
 Merely decorate the page without improving understanding
 E.g., picture of a general in a lesson about explosives
 Instructional designer’s job is to enable learner to make sense of
information

21.  Illustrate procedures with screen captures
 Show a process flow with arrows or animated graphics
 Organize topics by using rollover buttons to show different
graphics

22.  Facts, e.g., a screen capture
 Concepts, e.g., a diagram of species
 Process, e.g., animation of a pump
 Procedure, e.g., animation of steps with arrows highlighting
buttons or parts
 Principle, e.g., animation of genes passing from parents to
offspring

23.  Information delivery theory: learning consists of acquiring
information
 Information format shouldn’t matter
 Cognitive theory: learning is actively making sense of
information
 Active learning involves constructing and connecting visual and
verbal representations of material

24. Ten lessons teaching scientific or mechanical
processes, such as how pumps work
 Students who receive multimedia lesson
perform better on post-test than students
who receive same information in words
Improvement of 55-121% more correct
solutions to transfer problems

25.  Based on cognitive theory, designer is confident in multimedia
principle
 Explains to the VP that people learn more deeply when they
are able to build mental connections between verbal and
pictorial presentations
 Shows prototype storyboards

26.  Dilemma: use fixed screen displays or scrolling pages (to save
bandwidth)?
 Principle: place text near corresponding graphics

27. Text separate from graphic Text integrated into graphic

28.  Can we apply this principle in the following situation?
 Identifying parts in a diagram:
 List of part names below the diagram?
 Pointers connecting names to parts?
 Hyperlinks from diagram image map
to names and descriptions of parts?
 Pop-up text as mouse rolls over parts?

29.  When words and pictures are separate, people must use scarce
cognitive resources just to match them up
 Less resources available to organize and integrate material in
memory
 Contiguity reduces load on working memory and thus
increases learning

31.  Separating visuals and text
 Obscuring connection with scrolling text
 Feedback on a separate screen from practice question
 Second browser window covers related information on main
screen
 Directions for exercise on separate screen from exercise itself

32.  So far we’ve learned how to apply
two cognitive principles to e-learning:
 Multimedia principle?
 Include both words and graphics
 Contiguity principle?
 Place text near corresponding graphics
 Next, we’ll apply two more principles:
 Modality principle: put words in spoken form
 Redundancy principle: don’t put same words
in both speech and text

33.  Project sponsor tells course designer to “get rid of all that
[narration] audio”
 Why would she say that?
 How should the course designer react?
 “Let me look into it” (resolves to look into theory and research
about audio)

34. Put words in spoken rather than graphic
form, when graphic or animation is in focus
Why?
Cognitive theory of learning:
 Separate information processing channels for
visual and auditory/verbal processing
 Capacity of each channel is limited
 Graphics and onscreen text compete for attention
 Overloads visual channel
 Instead, use both auditory and visual channels

35.  People learn more lessons with concurrent speech than just text
alone
 64% vs. 36% correct on post-test
 Are you impressed?
 Would project sponsor be convinced?
 Is it worth the extra work of audio production?
 When is audio less effective?

36.  VP: “We need to accommodate different learning styles: add text
to the screen for those who learn better from reading.”
 Is she right? Why or why not?
 Redundancy doesn’t help: people learn more from audio alone
than audio plus text explaining graphics or animation

37. Some have visual, others auditory style
 Therefore present both, to accommodate both
learning styles
 What do you think of this hypothesis?
This hypothesis is a special case of
information delivery theory: people learn by
adding information to memory
 Mind is an empty vessel to be filled with info
 So redundant presentation puts more info in mind
 Cognitive theory: each channel is limited
 Redundant text could overload visual channel

38. Avoid presenting words as narration and
identical text
Special cases for narration of text:
 No pictorial representation on a screen
 Slow pace of presentation
 Helping learners with disabilities or non-native
speakers
 Learners who may not have access to speakers or
headsets

39.  Director says a first version “seems a little dry—can you spice
it up a bit?”
 Why might spicing it up with extra graphics or background
music seem worthwhile?
 Common sense: avoid boring the learner
 Arousal theory: when learners become emotionally aroused they
try harder to learn the material

40.  Interesting material can hinder learning
Why?
 Cognitive theory: learners have limited resources
 Extraneous materials competes with core material
for limited cognitive resources
Coherence: all materials should cohere
relevantly with what needs to be learned

41. Background music and sounds may overload
working memory
 Especially when learner experiences heavy
cognitive processing demands
Experimental results:
 For lightning presentation, added sound effects
such as winds depicting air movement and
crackling of charge transfers
 Retention was 61-149% better for narration without
additional sound effects

42.  Adding interesting sentences may seem like an easy way to
increase interest
 Again, they may just distract learners
 Conclusion: avoid seductive but irrelevant details that force
excitement but don’t increase understanding

43.  Discuss in your project group
 Do you follow this principle in your scripts so far?
 Are there any sounds or graphics in your script that you might
drop?

44.  What’s the
difference?
Which is more
effective for
learners?

45. Conversational style aids learning
 Formal style avoids first- and second-person: e.g.,
“Caution should be used when opening pyrotechnic
containers.”
 Use second-person: “You should be careful if you
open any containers with pyrotechnics.”
Why might informal style help learning?
 People work harder to understand material when
they feel they are in a conversation with a partner.
 Discuss examples on p. 164

46.  Agents may be representations of real people or artificial
characters using animation and computer-generated voice
 Clippy, Knobby or professor personae?

47.  Herman the bug improved learning 24-48%
 Lifelike agents may not be essential
 Human voice may work better than computer-generated
speech

48.  Web-based agent supports lesson presentation, student monitoring
and feedback, probing questions, hints, and explanations

49.  Characters move freely in computer display,
speak aloud and display text onscreen, and
even listen for spoken voice commands
Downloadable from
www.microsoft.com/msagent/

50. Psychological reasons for using visible
author?
 Author as guide for student
 Social relationships motivate students
 Evidence shows that learners provide richer
answers for some learners

51.  Will you adjust your writing style?
 Will you use learning coaches or agents?
 Check out Microsoft Agent software?
 Will you include a “visible” author?

52.  Interactive practice exercises help learners
integrate knowledge into LTM
What kinds of exercises?
 Drag-and-drop and simulations
 More crucially: exercises should mirror thinking
processes and environment of actual task
 Better learning results from practice questions
interspersed throughout the lesson
 Learners should be trained to developer their own
questions

53.  Activities should require learners to respond
in similar ways during training as they will
on the job
 E.g., Jeopardy game doesn’t help transfer on job
 Simulation of actual job decisions does
Avoid simple regurgitation of information
provided in training program
 Doesn’t implant cues for retrieval in job context

54.  Asking “why” questions improves learning
 “Why does an object speed up as its radius gets smaller?”
 Results in greater factual and inference learning
 Pro and con analysis improves learning
 Developing arguments requires organization and integration of
materials

55. Well designed practice exercises provide
opportunities for encoding knowledge or skills
 The more encoding opportunities, the more integration
 Logarithmic relationship between amount of practice
and time to complete tasks
 Improvement occurs regardless of initial ability
Tradeoff of time in development and lesson
 Interactive practice can be harder to design
 Practice also adds to training time: eventually there
are diminishing returns on learning

56.  Spacing practice is superior to massed practice, e.g., at end of
lesson
 Spacing effect is not immediate but after a period of time

57. Contiguity: keep text close to graphics
Modality: use audio to explain graphics
 But audio is transient, so redundant text and
graphics is OK for practice questions
 Feedback should also be presented in text
Redundancy: use text alone
 Don’t narrate text directions or practice questions
 Peronalization: use conversational language
 Provide hints and feedback in first & second person

58.  Learners can ask and answer their own questions during
lessons: “How can I apply the program features to my job?”
 Agent could suggest such questions
 Why encourage self-questioning?
 Active engagement improves learning
 Developing metacognitive skills improves learning