Xylem is one of the conductive tissues in plants. It is composed of various cell types that function to transport water and minerals throughout the plant. Xylem tissue is divided into primary and secondary xylem. Primary xylem develops during primary growth and consists of protoxylem and metaxylem. Secondary xylem forms during secondary growth and provides structural support through thickened cell walls. It is composed of tracheids, vessels, fibres and parenchyma cells. Vascular rays extend radially to facilitate transport between the xylem and other tissues.
The document discusses the root-stem transition zone in plants. It begins by explaining that the root has a radial vascular structure while the stem has a conjoint structure, so there must be a region where these structures merge. This region is called the root-stem transition zone. The document then describes four types of root-stem transitions (Fumaria, Cucurbita, Lathyrus, and Anemarrhena) which differ in how the xylem and phloem structures divide and rearrange as they transition from root to stem. Finally, it notes that the transition zone represents a different internal arrangement than the root or stem and reflects different evolutionary stages in the development of the vascular system.
1. The document discusses the Pteridospermales order, which includes seed-bearing plants that resembled ferns. They first appeared in the late Devonian period and went extinct in the Jurassic period.
2. It focuses on describing the Lyginopteridaceae family, which had fern-like leaves and vines or climbing growth forms. Their anatomy included mesarch stems and leaves as well as seeds enclosed in cupules.
3. Details are provided on the external features, anatomy of the stem, leaf, root, and reproductive organs of the Lyginopteris oldhamia species, including its circinate leaves, mesarch siphonostele stem, and heterosporous ovules
This document summarizes the Bennettitales, a group of fossil plants that flourished during the Mesozoic era. It describes two families of Bennettitales: Bennettitaceae and Williamsoniaceae. Bennettitaceae had deeply sunk flowers on short, thick trunks, while Williamsoniaceae had fully exposed flowers on slender stems. The document provides details on the anatomy, reproduction, and classification of these two extinct families of seed plants.
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
This document provides information about the fern genus Osmunda. It discusses the systematic position and distribution of Osmunda species. It describes the sporophyte structures including roots, stems, leaves, and internal anatomy. It covers the development and dehiscence of sporangia and gametophytes. Finally, it mentions some economic uses of Osmunda including using roots and rhizomes for fiber and as growing medium for orchids.
Pteridophytes are classified into 4 divisions - Psilophyta, Lycophyta, Sphenophyta, and Pterophyta. Psilophyta includes the most primitive whisk ferns and Lycophyta includes club mosses and spike mosses. Sphenophyta contains the single living genus Equisetum, or horse tails. Pterophyta, or ferns, is the largest and most widely distributed division containing many families and over 10,000 living species distributed worldwide. Each division contains multiple classes that further specify characteristics such as plant body structure, leaf and spore structures, and reproductive systems.
The document discusses the root-stem transition zone in plants. It begins by explaining that the root has a radial vascular structure while the stem has a conjoint structure, so there must be a region where these structures merge. This region is called the root-stem transition zone. The document then describes four types of root-stem transitions (Fumaria, Cucurbita, Lathyrus, and Anemarrhena) which differ in how the xylem and phloem structures divide and rearrange as they transition from root to stem. Finally, it notes that the transition zone represents a different internal arrangement than the root or stem and reflects different evolutionary stages in the development of the vascular system.
1. The document discusses the Pteridospermales order, which includes seed-bearing plants that resembled ferns. They first appeared in the late Devonian period and went extinct in the Jurassic period.
2. It focuses on describing the Lyginopteridaceae family, which had fern-like leaves and vines or climbing growth forms. Their anatomy included mesarch stems and leaves as well as seeds enclosed in cupules.
3. Details are provided on the external features, anatomy of the stem, leaf, root, and reproductive organs of the Lyginopteris oldhamia species, including its circinate leaves, mesarch siphonostele stem, and heterosporous ovules
This document summarizes the Bennettitales, a group of fossil plants that flourished during the Mesozoic era. It describes two families of Bennettitales: Bennettitaceae and Williamsoniaceae. Bennettitaceae had deeply sunk flowers on short, thick trunks, while Williamsoniaceae had fully exposed flowers on slender stems. The document provides details on the anatomy, reproduction, and classification of these two extinct families of seed plants.
The "Telome theory" of Walter Zimmermann (1930, 1952) is the most accepted theory that is based on fossil record and synthesizes the major steps in the evolution of vascular plants.
It describes how the primitive type of vascular plants developed from Rhynia like plants.
This document provides information about the fern genus Osmunda. It discusses the systematic position and distribution of Osmunda species. It describes the sporophyte structures including roots, stems, leaves, and internal anatomy. It covers the development and dehiscence of sporangia and gametophytes. Finally, it mentions some economic uses of Osmunda including using roots and rhizomes for fiber and as growing medium for orchids.
Pteridophytes are classified into 4 divisions - Psilophyta, Lycophyta, Sphenophyta, and Pterophyta. Psilophyta includes the most primitive whisk ferns and Lycophyta includes club mosses and spike mosses. Sphenophyta contains the single living genus Equisetum, or horse tails. Pterophyta, or ferns, is the largest and most widely distributed division containing many families and over 10,000 living species distributed worldwide. Each division contains multiple classes that further specify characteristics such as plant body structure, leaf and spore structures, and reproductive systems.
Classification of gymnosperm by chamberlainsonam yadav
This document summarizes the classification of gymnosperms according to Chamberlain in 1935. It divides gymnosperms into two classes: Cycadophyta and Coniferophyta. Cycadophyta includes three orders - Cycadophytales, Bennettitales, and Cycadales. Coniferophyta includes four orders - Cordaitales, Ginkgoales, Coniferales, and Gnetales. Key characteristics of each order are provided such as reproductive structures, examples, and whether they are extinct or living.
CAMBIUM GROWTH, SECONDARY GROWTH I STEM AND ROOTS, ANNUAL RINGS, WHY NOT IN MONOCOTS, CHANGES BEFORE AND AFTER GROWTH (*SOME SLIDES HAVE CUSTOM ANIMATION EFFECTS)
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
The document summarizes the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). It provides a brief history of botanical naming conventions beginning with Linnaeus' binomial system in 1753. It describes the subsequent meetings that have been held to refine the ICBN rules. The principles of the ICBN are to establish a stable and universal naming system through use of types, priority of publication, and Latin names. Key rules covered include ranks of taxa, typification, requirements for valid publication, author citation, and criteria for selecting correct names when taxa change ranks or are combined or divided. The overall aim of the ICBN is to provide consistency in botanical nomenclature.
STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION IN GAMETOPHYTES, SPOROPHYTESNikkiM12
Bryophytes have three main classes: Hepaticopsida, Anthocerotopsida, and Bryopsida. Gametophytes vary in structure between classes from simple thallose forms to more complex leafy forms. The life cycle involves a dominant gametophyte phase that produces gametes and a sporophyte phase that is dependent on the gametophyte. The sporophyte evolves from a simple sac producing spores to more complex forms with sterile foot and seta structures that aid in spore dispersal. Bryophytes have economic importance as fuel sources from peat, in horticulture, and for traditional medicinal uses treating wounds, skin conditions, and insect bites.
1. Selaginella is a heterosporous plant that produces megaspores and microspores. The spores develop into male and female gametophytes within their spore walls.
2. Microspores develop into male gametophytes containing antherozoids for fertilization. Megaspores develop into female gametophytes containing archegonia.
3. Fertilization occurs when antherozoids enter the archegonia through openings in the neck canal cells. This leads to the development of a diploid sporophyte within the megaspore.
This document provides information about the order Ginkgoales. It discusses that Ginkgoales is an ancient order of gymnosperms that is now only represented by one surviving species, Ginkgo biloba, known as the living fossil. The document describes the morphological features and life cycle of G. biloba, including its fan-shaped leaves, dioecious reproduction, and development of male microsporangia and female megasporangia. It also notes the economic and medicinal uses of G. biloba as an ornamental shade tree and treatment for memory problems.
Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae found in tropical and temperate oceans. It has a main axis with branched laterals bearing air bladders and receptacles with flask-shaped conceptacles containing sex organs. Reproduction is both vegetative through fragmentation and sexually through antheridia and oogonia forming in conceptacles. Porphyra is an edible red algae commonly known as nori. It has a thin blade-like thallus attached by a holdfast. Cells contain stellate chromatophores. Reproduction is sexual through carpogonia and spermatangia or asexually through neutral spores. Diatoms are a large group of algae with beautiful
This PPT contains the application of Plant Anatomy in the field of Pharmacognosy & Plant systemics with number of examples to explore the beauty of this subject .
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
This document summarizes key details about the fern genus Pteris. It describes the systematic position of Pteris within the plant kingdom, common Indian species, and global occurrence/distribution. The morphology, anatomy, and reproductive structures of the sporophyte (fern plant) are then explained in detail, covering the rhizome, fronds, leaflets, and roots. Key anatomical features include dictyostele stele in the rhizome, vascular bundles with endodermis and pericycle, and hypostomatous leaflets. Reproduction occurs vegetatively from the rhizome as well as sexually from spores.
1. Secondary growth in dicot stems occurs through the formation of secondary tissues from lateral meristems. This increases the stem diameter.
2. Two types of lateral meristems are involved - the vascular cambium, which produces secondary vascular tissues, and the cork cambium or phellogen, which forms periderm.
3. Secondary growth results in the formation of secondary xylem (wood) on the inner side and secondary phloem (bast) on the outer side of the vascular cambium. Distinct growth rings are formed in areas with seasonal variations.
• PRIMARY PIT FIELD
• PITS
• STRUCTURE OF PITS
• TYPES OF PITS
• COMBINATION IN PITS
• STRUCTURE OF BORDERED PITS
• COMBINATION IN BORDERED PITS
• PLASMODESMATA
• STRUCTURE OF PLASMODESMATA
• CLASSIFICATION OF PLASMODESMATA
• FUNCTION OF PLASMODESMATA
Fossil gymnosperms and Geological Time ScaleJasmine Brar
Fossils provide evidence of ancient life through direct physical remains or indirect chemical remains. There are several types of fossilization processes that can preserve plant material in different ways, including compressions, petrifactions, impressions, casts, mummified remains, and inclusions in amber. Paleobotany is the study of plant life through fossil records, which helps reconstruct the geological timescale, but the fossil record is incomplete as most plant material does not fossilize and preserved fragments are often partial.
1. Chara is a genus of macroscopic, multicellular, branched green algae that grows in freshwater. The plants have a main axis with nodes, internodes, and branches of either limited or unlimited growth.
2. Vegetative reproduction occurs through structures like amylum stars, bulbils, and secondary protenemas that form on the rhizoids. Sexual reproduction is oogamous, with male antheridia and female oogonia occurring either on the same plant or different plants.
3. Fertilization involves the release of biflagellate antherozoids from the antheridia that swim and penetrate the receptive egg cell within the oogonium,
This document discusses anomalous secondary growth patterns in four plant species: Bignonia, Boerhaavia, Aristolochia, and Dracaena. In Bignonia, the cambium functions abnormally by producing secondary phloem in some segments while producing both phloem and xylem in others. In Boerhaavia, accessory cambium arise successively, producing concentric rings of vascular bundles. Aristolochia's cambium produces parenchyma instead of xylem and phloem between fascicular zones. Dracaena exhibits an anomalous cambium originating in the cortex that produces concentric secondary vascular bundles and conjunctive tissue, increasing stem thickness over time.
Bryophytes are a division of nonvascular plants that include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They were some of the earliest land plants, emerging around 485 million years ago. Bryophytes grow in habitats where water is periodically available, such as forest floors, tree trunks, and damp soil. They reproduce through an alternation of generations, where the dominant gametophyte generation produces sex organs and a dependent sporophyte generation that produces spores and fertilizes the eggs to form diploid zygotes. Bryophytes play important ecological roles in soil formation, moisture retention, and nutrient recycling in forests.
Secondary growth occurs after primary growth through the activity of lateral meristems, resulting in increased girth. It is characterized by the deposition of secondary phloem and secondary xylem, which modifies the primary structure. In dicots, secondary growth includes intrastelar growth within the stele and extrastelar growth outside. Intrastelar growth involves the formation of the vascular cambium and secondary vascular tissues, while extrastelar growth involves the formation of a protective periderm layer and lenticels for gas exchange. The vascular cambium produces secondary phloem and secondary xylem tissues through the activity of ray initials and fusiform initials.
The structure of xylem contains four main components: tracheids, trachea or vessels, xylem fibers, and xylem parenchyma. Tracheids are elongated dead cells that transport water and form connections between cells through bordered pits. Trachea are long tube-like structures formed from joined cylindrical cells with perforated end walls, allowing water to flow freely. Xylem fibers provide mechanical support and come in two types. Xylem parenchyma are living cells involved in storage.
Classification of gymnosperm by chamberlainsonam yadav
This document summarizes the classification of gymnosperms according to Chamberlain in 1935. It divides gymnosperms into two classes: Cycadophyta and Coniferophyta. Cycadophyta includes three orders - Cycadophytales, Bennettitales, and Cycadales. Coniferophyta includes four orders - Cordaitales, Ginkgoales, Coniferales, and Gnetales. Key characteristics of each order are provided such as reproductive structures, examples, and whether they are extinct or living.
CAMBIUM GROWTH, SECONDARY GROWTH I STEM AND ROOTS, ANNUAL RINGS, WHY NOT IN MONOCOTS, CHANGES BEFORE AND AFTER GROWTH (*SOME SLIDES HAVE CUSTOM ANIMATION EFFECTS)
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
• Gymnosperms (Gymnos = naked, Sperma = seed) include the small group of plants with naked seeds.
• The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Paleozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
The document summarizes the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). It provides a brief history of botanical naming conventions beginning with Linnaeus' binomial system in 1753. It describes the subsequent meetings that have been held to refine the ICBN rules. The principles of the ICBN are to establish a stable and universal naming system through use of types, priority of publication, and Latin names. Key rules covered include ranks of taxa, typification, requirements for valid publication, author citation, and criteria for selecting correct names when taxa change ranks or are combined or divided. The overall aim of the ICBN is to provide consistency in botanical nomenclature.
STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION IN GAMETOPHYTES, SPOROPHYTESNikkiM12
Bryophytes have three main classes: Hepaticopsida, Anthocerotopsida, and Bryopsida. Gametophytes vary in structure between classes from simple thallose forms to more complex leafy forms. The life cycle involves a dominant gametophyte phase that produces gametes and a sporophyte phase that is dependent on the gametophyte. The sporophyte evolves from a simple sac producing spores to more complex forms with sterile foot and seta structures that aid in spore dispersal. Bryophytes have economic importance as fuel sources from peat, in horticulture, and for traditional medicinal uses treating wounds, skin conditions, and insect bites.
1. Selaginella is a heterosporous plant that produces megaspores and microspores. The spores develop into male and female gametophytes within their spore walls.
2. Microspores develop into male gametophytes containing antherozoids for fertilization. Megaspores develop into female gametophytes containing archegonia.
3. Fertilization occurs when antherozoids enter the archegonia through openings in the neck canal cells. This leads to the development of a diploid sporophyte within the megaspore.
This document provides information about the order Ginkgoales. It discusses that Ginkgoales is an ancient order of gymnosperms that is now only represented by one surviving species, Ginkgo biloba, known as the living fossil. The document describes the morphological features and life cycle of G. biloba, including its fan-shaped leaves, dioecious reproduction, and development of male microsporangia and female megasporangia. It also notes the economic and medicinal uses of G. biloba as an ornamental shade tree and treatment for memory problems.
Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae found in tropical and temperate oceans. It has a main axis with branched laterals bearing air bladders and receptacles with flask-shaped conceptacles containing sex organs. Reproduction is both vegetative through fragmentation and sexually through antheridia and oogonia forming in conceptacles. Porphyra is an edible red algae commonly known as nori. It has a thin blade-like thallus attached by a holdfast. Cells contain stellate chromatophores. Reproduction is sexual through carpogonia and spermatangia or asexually through neutral spores. Diatoms are a large group of algae with beautiful
This PPT contains the application of Plant Anatomy in the field of Pharmacognosy & Plant systemics with number of examples to explore the beauty of this subject .
Fossils provide important information about past plant and animal life on Earth. They form through a process called fossilization when remains become buried in sediment and over time the sediment hardens into rock, preserving the remains. There are many types of fossils including body fossils, trace fossils, molds/casts, and carbonized or permineralized fossils. The geological time scale maps Earth's history in distinct periods based on fossils and rock layers. Key periods include the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Fossils are important for understanding evolution and how life has changed over geological time.
This document summarizes key details about the fern genus Pteris. It describes the systematic position of Pteris within the plant kingdom, common Indian species, and global occurrence/distribution. The morphology, anatomy, and reproductive structures of the sporophyte (fern plant) are then explained in detail, covering the rhizome, fronds, leaflets, and roots. Key anatomical features include dictyostele stele in the rhizome, vascular bundles with endodermis and pericycle, and hypostomatous leaflets. Reproduction occurs vegetatively from the rhizome as well as sexually from spores.
1. Secondary growth in dicot stems occurs through the formation of secondary tissues from lateral meristems. This increases the stem diameter.
2. Two types of lateral meristems are involved - the vascular cambium, which produces secondary vascular tissues, and the cork cambium or phellogen, which forms periderm.
3. Secondary growth results in the formation of secondary xylem (wood) on the inner side and secondary phloem (bast) on the outer side of the vascular cambium. Distinct growth rings are formed in areas with seasonal variations.
• PRIMARY PIT FIELD
• PITS
• STRUCTURE OF PITS
• TYPES OF PITS
• COMBINATION IN PITS
• STRUCTURE OF BORDERED PITS
• COMBINATION IN BORDERED PITS
• PLASMODESMATA
• STRUCTURE OF PLASMODESMATA
• CLASSIFICATION OF PLASMODESMATA
• FUNCTION OF PLASMODESMATA
Fossil gymnosperms and Geological Time ScaleJasmine Brar
Fossils provide evidence of ancient life through direct physical remains or indirect chemical remains. There are several types of fossilization processes that can preserve plant material in different ways, including compressions, petrifactions, impressions, casts, mummified remains, and inclusions in amber. Paleobotany is the study of plant life through fossil records, which helps reconstruct the geological timescale, but the fossil record is incomplete as most plant material does not fossilize and preserved fragments are often partial.
1. Chara is a genus of macroscopic, multicellular, branched green algae that grows in freshwater. The plants have a main axis with nodes, internodes, and branches of either limited or unlimited growth.
2. Vegetative reproduction occurs through structures like amylum stars, bulbils, and secondary protenemas that form on the rhizoids. Sexual reproduction is oogamous, with male antheridia and female oogonia occurring either on the same plant or different plants.
3. Fertilization involves the release of biflagellate antherozoids from the antheridia that swim and penetrate the receptive egg cell within the oogonium,
This document discusses anomalous secondary growth patterns in four plant species: Bignonia, Boerhaavia, Aristolochia, and Dracaena. In Bignonia, the cambium functions abnormally by producing secondary phloem in some segments while producing both phloem and xylem in others. In Boerhaavia, accessory cambium arise successively, producing concentric rings of vascular bundles. Aristolochia's cambium produces parenchyma instead of xylem and phloem between fascicular zones. Dracaena exhibits an anomalous cambium originating in the cortex that produces concentric secondary vascular bundles and conjunctive tissue, increasing stem thickness over time.
Bryophytes are a division of nonvascular plants that include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They were some of the earliest land plants, emerging around 485 million years ago. Bryophytes grow in habitats where water is periodically available, such as forest floors, tree trunks, and damp soil. They reproduce through an alternation of generations, where the dominant gametophyte generation produces sex organs and a dependent sporophyte generation that produces spores and fertilizes the eggs to form diploid zygotes. Bryophytes play important ecological roles in soil formation, moisture retention, and nutrient recycling in forests.
Secondary growth occurs after primary growth through the activity of lateral meristems, resulting in increased girth. It is characterized by the deposition of secondary phloem and secondary xylem, which modifies the primary structure. In dicots, secondary growth includes intrastelar growth within the stele and extrastelar growth outside. Intrastelar growth involves the formation of the vascular cambium and secondary vascular tissues, while extrastelar growth involves the formation of a protective periderm layer and lenticels for gas exchange. The vascular cambium produces secondary phloem and secondary xylem tissues through the activity of ray initials and fusiform initials.
The structure of xylem contains four main components: tracheids, trachea or vessels, xylem fibers, and xylem parenchyma. Tracheids are elongated dead cells that transport water and form connections between cells through bordered pits. Trachea are long tube-like structures formed from joined cylindrical cells with perforated end walls, allowing water to flow freely. Xylem fibers provide mechanical support and come in two types. Xylem parenchyma are living cells involved in storage.
Vascular tissue is found in vascular plants and contains the two primary components of xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and minerals throughout the plant and is composed of tracheids, tracheae, fibers and parenchyma cells. Phloem transports nutrients and is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, parenchyma and fibers. Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with specialized cell types that facilitate their roles in conduction.
The document summarizes the three main tissue types in plants: dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Dermal tissue covers the outer surface and is composed of epidermal cells that secrete a waxy cuticle. There are two types of plant tissues: meristematic tissues which are undifferentiated and can divide, as well as permanent tissues. Meristematic tissue includes apical and lateral meristem while permanent tissues include various ground tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma as well as vascular tissues like xylem and phloem. Xylem contains tracheids and vessels that transport water and minerals upward while phloem contains sieve tubes and companion cells that
The document provides information on the anatomy and tissues of flowering plants. It discusses the basic plant tissues like meristematic tissues, permanent tissues, simple tissues and complex tissues. It describes the primary tissues - parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. It also elaborates on the complex vascular tissues - xylem and phloem. Furthermore, it discusses the three tissue systems - epidermal, ground and vascular tissue systems. Lastly, it compares the anatomical differences between monocot and dicot plants in roots, stems and leaves.
This document describes the different types of plant tissues - parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem. It provides details on the characteristics, structure and functions of each type of tissue. Parenchyma is a simple living tissue made of thin-walled cells involved in plant metabolism. Collenchyma has elongated cells with thick non-lignified primary walls that provide support to growing organs. Sclerenchyma includes thick-walled and often lignified cells that provide mechanical strength. Xylem and phloem are complex tissues - xylem transports water and minerals throughout the plant while phloem transports food.
This document summarizes the different types of plant tissues. It describes two main categories of plant tissues - meristematic and permanent tissues. Permanent tissues are further divided into simple and complex tissues. Simple tissues include epidermis, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and cork. Complex tissues include xylem and phloem. Each tissue type is then defined and their structure and functions are explained.
Plants have three main organ systems - roots, stems, and leaves. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and anchor the plant, while stems provide structure and transport water and nutrients between roots and leaves. Leaves use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce food for the plant through photosynthesis.
Plant organs are made of three main tissue types - dermal tissue which covers the plant, vascular tissue which transports water and nutrients, and ground tissue for photosynthesis, storage and support. Vascular tissue specifically contains xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and minerals upwards while phloem transports sugars downward.
The basic building blocks of plant tissues are cells. Plant cells have additional
The document summarizes the key components and functions of xylem and phloem tissue in plants. Xylem tissue conducts water and minerals throughout the plant and is composed of tracheids and vessels. Phloem tissue conducts sugars and transports them from leaves to other plant parts. Phloem consists of sieve tubes made of elongated living cells called sieve elements connected end to end to form columns. Each sieve element has an associated companion cell that provides energy and nutrients to keep the sieve element alive via plasmodesmata.
Unit1 part 1 (1).pptx dicot anatomy in which it will show the anatomical stru...prekshanalwaya
1. The document describes the structure and function of different parts of the root, stem, and leaf in plants.
2. The root has key layers including the piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and vascular bundles. The stem contains an epidermis, cortex with hypodermis, ground tissue, and vascular bundles.
3. Leaves have an upper and lower epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyll tissue, and vascular bundles. These structures allow the plant to absorb water and nutrients, provide support, transport materials, and perform photosynthesis.
Xylem contains tracheids and vessels which are dead cells with lignified walls that transport water and minerals throughout the plant. Tracheids are elongated cells with thickened walls, while vessels are formed from rows of cells with dissolved walls to form continuous channels. Phloem contains sieve tubes, companion cells, bast fibers, and parenchyma. Sieve tubes are long thin-walled cells joined end to end to transport food, while companion cells are associated with sieve tubes and remain connected via pores. Bast fibers are dead sclerenchyma fibers in phloem, while parenchyma is ordinary plant tissue.
Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, phloem, and xylem are the fundamental tissues in plants. Parenchyma cells perform photosynthesis and store products. Collenchyma and sclerenchyma provide structural support. Phloem transports food throughout the plant via sieve tubes and companion cells. Xylem transports water and minerals upwards via tracheids and vessels. These tissues work together to support and transport nutrients and water in plants.
Vascularization refers to the development of vascular tissues in plants. During primary growth, procambium develops and differentiates into primary xylem and phloem. During secondary growth, the vascular cambium develops more xylem and phloem. The vascular bundles contain conducting tissues that transport water, minerals and organic compounds throughout the plant. Vascular bundles are organized into steles of various types depending on the plant. Angiosperm flowers also exhibit patterns of vascularization that provide clues about floral evolution.
This document summarizes the vascular tissue system in plants. It describes how vascular bundles are distributed throughout the plant and contain three main tissues: xylem, phloem and cambium. The xylem conducts water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, and contains elements like tracheids, vessels, fibers and parenchyma. The phloem transports food materials throughout the plant and contains sieve tubes, companion cells and parenchyma. There are different types of vascular bundles including radial, conjoint, collateral and concentric bundles.
1. The document describes the anatomy of roots in dicotyledonous and monocot plants.
2. It details the tissues found in roots of various plants including Cicer, Tinospora, and Ficus. These tissues include the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundles, pith and periderm.
3. Secondary growth occurs in some dicot roots through the formation of cambium rings between vascular bundles. Cambium activity results in the production of secondary xylem and phloem, forming a continuous cylinder around the primary tissues over time.
The epidermis is a single layer of compact parenchyma cells with a cuticle and stomata. Below this is the hypodermis of compact sclerenchyma cells. The ground tissue makes up most of the stem and contains loosely arranged parenchyma cells with spaces. Vascular bundles are irregularly scattered throughout the ground tissue and each has a sclerenchyma bundle sheath. The bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed with endarch xylem formation.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
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Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
2. XYLEM
▪ The word xylem is derived from the Greek word ‘Xylos’ meaning wood.
▪ This term was proposed by Nageli(1858)
▪ It is one of the conductive tissue in plants.
▪ A complex tissue, composed of many types of cells.
▪ Main function : Conduction of water & minerals.
▪ Additional function : Provide mechanical support.
▪ 2 types; Primary xylem & Secondary xylem.
3. ▪Primary xylem
▪ Formed during primary growth of the plant.
▪ Derived from Pro-cambium (apical meristem).
▪ Consist of 2 parts; Protoxylem & Metaxylem.
▪ Protoxylem: First formed xylem, contains fewer amount of tracheary elements
& more amount of Parenchyma.
▪ Metaxylem: Differentiate only after protoxylem develop. Contain more
tracheary elements than Parenchyma. They are functional in the plants
without secondary thickening throughout their life cycle. In plants with
secondary thickening, metaxylem are replaced by secondary xylem.
4. ▪Secondary xylem
▪ Formed from vascular cambuim(lateral meristem)during secondary growth.
▪ Its walls are thickened due to the deposition of lignin thereby rendering
mechanical support.
▪ Form annual rings.
▪ Differentiation in to sap wood and heart wood found in large woody trees.
▪ Usually vessels remain plugged with tyloses.
▪ Secondary xylem Provides additional structural support and water conduction
tissues in shrubs and trees.
5.
6.
7.
8. COMPONENTS
Tracheids
▪ One of the fundamentalcell type in xylem.
▪ Elongated tube-like cell with both ends tapering.
▪ Walls thick in some palaces and thin in others.
▪ They serve both as water conducting & strengtheningcells.
▪ Non living at maturity.
▪ Mature cell is empty without Protoplast.
▪ Cells with secondary cell wall which is highly lignified.
▪ Cells are angular or polygonal in cross-section
▪ Ends of tracheids of secondary xylem is chisel like.
▪ Lateral walls and end walls are provided with pit pairs(facilitate lateral conductionof water)
▪ Water and mineral passage take place through pit membrane.
9. Vessels
▪ Elongated tubular structurewith wide lumen.
▪ Cheief conducting element in xylem.
▪ Shorter cells than tracheids.
▪ Cells are non living at maturity.
▪ Cells deviod of Protoplast at maturity.
▪ Cells are arranged as series in end to end, parallel to the long axis of organ in which they
occur.
▪ Components of vessels are called vessel segments or vessel elements.
▪ Mainly present in xylem of angiosperms.
▪ Secondary thickening similar to that of tracheids.
▪ Main function: conduction of water and nutrients, mechanical support (thick lignified
cell wall)
▪ Vessels believed to be originated from tracheids.
10. ▪ Tracheary cells are divided into several types according to the types of
thickening of walls.
▪ Annular tracheary cells – in the form of rings
▪ Spiral tracheary cells – spiral thickening
▪ Pitted tracheary cells – walls which are uniformly thickened except for thin
places in the form of pits.
▪ Scalariform tracheary cells – ladder like thickening
▪ Reticulate tracheary cells – in the form of network
11. Xylem fibres
▪ Dead cells, no protoplast at maturity.
▪ Sclerenchymatous
▪ Long, slender, pointed cells with greatly thickened walls and few small pits.
▪ Cells with very thick lignified secondary cell wall.
▪ Obliterated central lumen.
▪ Main function: provides mechanical support.
▪ 2 types; Fibre tracheids & Libriform fibres.
▪ Longer than tracheids
12. ▪Xylem Parenchyma
▪ Living componentof xylem
▪ Cells with cytoplasm and prominent nucleus.
▪ Thin cellulosic cell wall with simple pits.
▪ Lignified secondary cell wall absent.
▪ Store starch, oil, and ergastic substances.
▪ 2 types; Axial Parenchyma & Ray Parenchyma.
13.
14. SECONDARY XYLEM ONTOGENY & STRUCTURE
▪ Secondary xylem are type of xylem produced during secondary growth of
angiosperms & some gymnosperm.
▪ The cambium ring cuts off new cells on inner side are gradually modified into xylary
elements called secondary xylem.
▪ Highly specialised vascular tissues characterized by the presence of heavily lignified
secondary cell wall composedof mainly cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.
▪ Vascular cambium composes of 2 type of stem cells;
(a) fusiform initials (b) Ray initials
▪ The elongated fusiform initials differentiate into axially oriented wood cells (fibres,
vessels, tracheids, axial parenchyma) – ensuring water conduction and mechanical
support.
▪ The nearly isodiametric ray initials give rise to transversely oriented ray
parenchyma ensuring traverse conduction and nutrient storage.
15. ▪ The xylem mother cells cut off by cambium may develop into permanent xylem
elements without further division or may divide once or several times before mature
cells are formed.
▪ Tracheids are formed directly from the xylem mother cell by increase in radial
diameter and in length, thickening of wall and loss of protoplast.
▪ Wood parenchyma cells are formed by the transverse division of the mother cell into a
number of segments and by subsequent radial enlargement and thickening of walls of
the segments.
▪ The parenchymatous nature of ray is likely achieved by ethylene produced by
developing tracheary elements & transported in the rays, inhibiting the differenriation
of non parenchymatous cells in the rays and ensuring their balanced distribution in
wood tissue.
16. APOTRACHEAL & PARATRACHEAL PARENCHYMA
1.Apotracheal parenchyma
▪ “Trachea,” which refers to a tube or pipe (in this case, a wood pore). Combine this with
the Greek prefix “apo,” which means away from or separate.
▪ Apotracheal refers to parenchyma cells that occur separate from the pores.
▪ Mainly classified into 3 types
▪ Apotracheal parenchyma can occur as single scattered cellscalled diffuse parenchyma.
▪ These cells are too small to be seen without a microscope.
▪ In some wood species, several apotracheal parenchyma cells are joined or aggregated
together, forming thin but visible tangential lines. This formation is known as diffuse-in-
aggregates parenchyma.
▪ When horizontal (tangential) bands of parenchyma occur as diffuse in aggregates known
as banded parenchyma.
21. 2.Paratracheal parenchyma
▪ The counterpart to apotracheal parenchyma is paratracheal parenchyma.
▪ The Greek prefix “para” means beside or near.
▪ Parenchyma that occurs in association with the wood’s pores.
▪ It exhibits a much wider range of patterns and variations.
▪ Mainly classified into 4 types.
▪ The most basic paratracheal parenchyma formation is a ring or circle of
cells surrounding the pore, which is termed vasicentric parenchyma.
▪ The words “vase”suggesting a vessel or pore and “centric“, which simply
indicates that the parenchyma is centered around the pore.
23. ▪ Another form of parenchyma that is closely related to vasicentric is Aliform
parenchyma which literally means “wing-shaped.”
▪ There are actually two primary variants of aliform parenchyma: the first
is winged, where short appendages or wings of parenchyma extend from
one or both sides of the pore.
▪ The second variant of aliform is lozenge, where the parenchyma
surrounding the pore takes on a diamond or elongated oval shape.
Ramin: aliform-winged Merbau: aliform-lozenge
24.
25. ▪ Another formation is Confluent parenchyma. This occurs when the parenchyma
is so extensive that it extends outward and makes contact with the parenchyma
from neighboring pores.
Marblewood: confluent
26.
27. ▪ When horizontal (tangential) bands of parenchyma occur as extensions of
aliform or confluent parenchyma it is called banded parenchyma.
▪ Banded parenchyma can be in continuous bands, or it can occur in interrupted
or discontinuous bands.
▪ The bands can be very thick constituting over half of the wood’s overall volume
in some species or they can be very thin and hardly visible with a hand lens.
▪ The bands can be very numerous and evenly spaced, or they can be very sparse
and sporadic.
29. ▪ It consist of compact mass of thick walled cells so arranged as to form 2 systems-
1. A longtitudinal (vertical) – Axial system
2. A transverse radiating system (run horizontally) – Ray system
▪ Longtutudinal system consists of elongate, overlapping & inter-locked cells of
tracheids, fibres, vessel elements & a longtitudinal row of parenchyma cells.
▪ It moves water and minerals up the stem.
▪ Secondary xylem traversed by radial system of xylem rays (in a radial direction)
▪ Ray system extends at right angle to tracheary elements and involved in radial
conduction of water and minerals as well as storage.
▪ Some conifer wood contains resin ducts or canals in both the axial & ray system.
STRUCTURE
30. ▪ Secondary xylem in general consist of the kind of cells as those of primary xylem,
but types of vessels, tracheids fibres are often quite different.
▪ Vessels and tracheids are most abundant and usually shorter, wider and thick
walled than that of primary xylem
▪ Rich in xylem fibres than primary xylem.
▪ Mostly vessels are pitted.
▪ Annular & spiral tracheids and vessels altogether absent.
▪ Xylem parenchyma cells are long and fusiform, but sometimes short. They are
living cells and usually meant for storage of food materials.
▪ Tannins and crystals are frequently found in these cells.
▪ Fibers possess thick walls and bordered pits.
31. VASCULAR RAYS
▪ As the radial width of the stele increases, the distance from phloem to xylem
increases and resulting need for better conduction of water radially from xylem
to phloem & cambium and food from phloem to cambium and to the living wood
parenchyma is met with by the production of vascular rays.
▪ Certain cells of the cambium ring instead of giving rise to wood and phloem
elements produce parenchyma cells which form narrow medullary rays traversing
radially the secondary xylem.
▪ They are somewhat elongated and apparently fitted for radial conduction of food
materials.
▪ All vascular rays are initiates by cambium and once formed are increased in
length indefinitely by cambium.
▪ Commonly called medullary rays or pith rays.
32. ▪ These radial rays may be best called vascular rays as the rays are of vascular
tissues partly of xylem and partly of phloem.
▪ The part of vascular ray which is in the xylem is spoken off as xylem rays or
wood rays & that of phloem as phloem rays.
▪ Xylem rays traverse in secondary xylem and establish communication with
living cells of vascular tissues.
▪ Extend radially in secondary xylem.
▪ Originate from ray initials.
▪ Xylem rays runs as a continuous band to secondary phloem through cambium
forming a continuous conducting system.
▪ Xylem rays help in exchange of gases also aid in conduction of water and food
from phloem to the cambium and xylem parenchyma.
33. FUNCTIONS
▪ Conduction of water, nutrients and minerals from root to leaves.
▪ Provides mechanical support.
▪ Storage of food and other materials.
▪ Ray parenchyma forms tyloses which forms ergastic substances.